Modernization of Europe Test 2

What was the primary concern of Klemens von Metternich as chancellor of the Austrian Empire?

His principal concern was for the stability of the Austrian Empire.

What were the two responses to the threat posed by revolution after the French Revolution?

1. Attract support for the government and weaken revolutionary fervor through moderate reforms. 2. Stop the whole process of change before it has the chance to start.

What did Metternich believe about the relationship between European stability and Austrian stability?

He believed that general European stability was essential for Austrian stability.

What underlying factors influenced Metternich's conservative views?

He lived during significant upheaval in Europe, came from an aristocratic family, and viewed liberalism and nationalism as threats to the stability of the multi-ethnic Austrian Empire.

What was the principle of legitimacy according to Metternich?

He believed that the best form of government was a monarchy based on a well-established claim to the throne.

What was the purpose of the Congress of Vienna?

To reshape Europe after the Napoleonic Wars, restore balance of power, re-establish old boundaries, and prevent future conflicts.

Who represented Britain at the Congress of Vienna and what was his role?

Britain was represented by Lord Castlereagh, who advocated for a balance of power to prevent any single nation from dominating Europe.

What was Klemens von Metternich's role at the Congress of Vienna?

He chaired the Congress and was instrumental in shaping the post-Napoleonic order in Europe.

Who represented Prussia at the Congress of Vienna and what was his contribution?

Prussia was represented by Karl August von Hardenberg, who advocated for Prussian interests and contributed to the reshaping of Europe.

What was Tsar Alexander I's role at the Congress of Vienna?

He directed Russia's diplomacy and advocated for a balance of power and a Christian alliance to maintain peace.

How did Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand represent France at the Congress of Vienna?

Despite France's weakened position, he skillfully navigated negotiations to secure favorable terms for France.

What were the guiding principles of the Vienna Settlement?

To restore pre-Napoleonic political boundaries, legitimize monarchs' authority, redistribute territories, and create a balance of power.

What was one example of the principle of restoration being followed at the Congress of Vienna?

The reinstatement of the Bourbon monarchy in France with Louis XVIII.

What was the assessment of the Vienna Settlement regarding European peace?

It resulted in forty years of peace with no general European war until 1854.

What was the Quadruple Alliance and its purpose?

Formed in 1815 by Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain to counter military and revolutionary threats and maintain the peace settlement.

What was the Holy Alliance and its goals?

A coalition formed in 1815 by Austria, Prussia, and Russia to promote Christian values and maintain the conservative order in Europe.

What was the Concert of Europe?

A diplomatic system established to maintain the balance of power and ensure peace in Europe after the Congress of Vienna.

What role did George Canning play in international relations during this period?

He guaranteed independence for newly created states in Latin America and sought to prevent rash actions by Russia regarding Greece.

What defines an industrialized society?

A society that has shifted from an agriculture-based economy to one focused on manufacturing and services, with growth in urban centers.

Why was Britain the first country to become an industrialized society?

The notes do not provide a specific answer, but factors typically include access to resources, technological innovations, and political stability.

What raw materials were crucial for industrialization?

Coal and iron.

What demographic change created demand for products during industrialization?

Rising population.

What transport advantages did industrialized regions have?

Navigable rivers and ocean access.

How did overseas empires contribute to industrialization?

They provided sources for raw materials and markets for finished goods.

What banking facilities supported industrial growth?

Banking facilities, inventions, and a stable political climate.

What factors contributed to the unevenness of innovation?

Scattering of industry, difficulty breaking tradition, lack of scientific knowledge, maintenance of patents, and refusal to license others.

Where were the earliest factories established?

In rural areas, powered by fast-flowing streams.

What technological advancement shifted factory locations in the 1780s?

The perfection of the steam engine.

What percentage of the factory workforce was made up of women and children?

About 75%.

Why were women and children preferred as factory workers?

They were cheaper to employ, easier to manage, and their size made them better suited for certain tasks.

What were parish apprentices?

Children from poor families bound out by parish officials to work as apprentices.

What was the aim of the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834?

To abolish the apprenticing of workhouse children due to its exploitative nature.

What is free labor?

A system where laborers are free to work for wages or as independent producers.

What challenges did factory management face?

No experience in personnel management, harsh regimes, poor work environments, and transitioning from old traditions.

What was St. Monday?

A tradition where people took Monday off, reflecting irregular work hours.

How did time discipline change during industrialization?

Old patterns based on natural light were replaced by clocks.

What methods were used to enforce discipline in factories?

Corporal punishment, shaming, humiliation, and fines.

Who was Robert Owen?

A Welsh textile manufacturer and social reformer who implemented progressive welfare programs.

What were some reforms implemented by Owen at New Lanark?

Reducing working hours, improving housing, providing healthcare, and establishing schools.

What factors can lead to a revolution?

Significant gaps between the wealthy and poor, high unemployment, oppressive regimes, and revolutionary ideologies.

What is Romanticism?

A broad protest movement emphasizing human passion and imagination.

How did Romanticism relate to Enlightenment thought?

It was partly a reaction to the Enlightenment's focus on reason and logic.

What political implications did Romanticism have?

It fostered national identity, emphasized personal freedom, and critiqued modernity.

What are the key principles of liberalism?

Emphasis on individual rights, constitutionalism, democracy, and state intervention to protect the poor.

What aspirations did nineteenth-century liberals have?

Establish constitutional governments, support free markets, promote education, and oppose imperial rule.

What sparked the July Revolution in France?

King Charles X's conservative policies and the publication of the July Ordinances.

What was the significance of Louis XVIII's reign?

He restored a constitutional monarchy and introduced the Charter of 1814.

What policies did Charles X implement?

Advocated for absolute monarchy, increased power of the Catholic Church, and reimbursed former landowners.

What led to Charles X's fall from power?

Policies favoring aristocracy, strict measures alienating liberals, and the July Revolution.

What were the Ordinances of St. Cloud?

Measures that suppressed press liberties, reduced the electorate, and imposed clerical control of education.

Who was Louis Philippe?

The son of the Duke of Orléans, he cultivated a humble exterior and was supported by the bourgeoisie.

What challenges did Louis Philippe face during his regime?

Division among supporters, hostility from extremists, and social unrest.

What inspired revolutions outside of France in 1830?

The July Revolution inspired uprisings in Belgium, Poland, Italy, and Switzerland.

What was the failure of liberalism in Poland?

The tsar's army crushed the revolt, leading to Poland's absorption into Russia.

What is cooperative socialism?

Establishment of small-scale cooperatives to end capitalism and create national workshops.

What is scientific socialism?

Marx's theory that economic production determines society's nature and class struggles drive history.

What are the five essentials of The Communist Manifesto?

Struggle between classes, abolition of bourgeois property, proletarian uprising, international solidarity, and the eventual withering away of the state.

What were the Revolutions of 1848?

A series of interconnected uprisings across Europe driven by economic distress and demands for self-determination.

What was the significance of the February Revolution in France?

It led to the abdication of Louis-Philippe and the establishment of the Second Republic.

What were the March Days?

Revolutionary events in March 1848 across Europe, leading to protests and the resignation of Metternich.

What were the reasons for the failure of the 1848 revolutions?

Natural conservatism of the peasantry, internal rivalries, and decisive military force against revolutionaries.

What is nationalism in a political context?

Refers to the identity of the nation in which one lives.

What factors hindered unification in Italy?

Localism, autocratic rule, and lack of cooperation among nationalists.

What factors favored unification in Italy?

Growth of national feelings, economic progress, and cultural works.

What was Young Italy?

A political movement founded by Giuseppe Mazzini aimed at creating a united, republican Italian nation.

Who was Giuseppe Mazzini?

A pivotal figure in the Italian unification movement, advocating for a democratic and unified Italy.

What was the role of Pope Pius IX in the Italian unification?

Initially a liberal, he granted amnesty to exiles and supported limited reforms.

What was the Treaty of Plombières?

A treaty in which Cavour negotiated French support for a war against Austria.

What was the significance of the Annexation of Lombardy?

It followed the Second Italian War of Independence and marked a key victory for Italian unification.

What was the Armistice at Villafranca?

It ended hostilities between France and Austria, ceding Lombardy to France and proposing an Italian Confederation.

How was the Annexation of the Central Duchies achieved?

Moderate nationalists worked with Cavour to stage revolts and engineer popular demonstrations.

What event in 1859 weakened Austrian control over the Italian territories?

The war in 1859 led to the expulsion of Austrian forces from the Central Duchies.

What was the outcome of the Treaty of Turin in March 1860?

It formalized the annexation of the Central Duchies to Piedmont-Sardinia.

Who was Giuseppe Garibaldi and what was his role in Italian unification?

Garibaldi was a determined romantic and great guerilla fighter who believed in Mazzini's republican doctrine and played a crucial role in the unification of Italy.

What was the significance of the Expedition of the Thousand led by Garibaldi?

It aimed to overthrow Bourbon rule in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and unite southern Italy with the north.

What was the role of Victor Emmanuel II in Italian unification?

He was the King of Sardinia-Piedmont who supported unification efforts and was proclaimed the first King of Italy in 1861.

How did Italy acquire Venetia?

Italy allied with Prussia during the Austro-Prussian War, leading to the Treaty of Vienna which transferred Venetia to Italy.

What event marked the completion of the Italian unification process?

The incorporation of Rome into the Kingdom of Italy on October 2, 1870.

What were some factors favoring Italian unification?

The Austro-Prussian struggle for domination, fear of Prussian ambition, and the rise of national consciousness.

What were some factors hindering Italian unification?

Particularism, religious divides, and the evolution of the German Confederation.

Who was Otto von Bismarck and what was his role in German unification?

Bismarck was a German statesman who masterminded the unification of Germany through a series of wars and became its first Chancellor.

What was Realpolitik and how did Bismarck apply it?

Realpolitik refers to a pragmatic approach to politics focusing on practical goals; Bismarck used it to advance Prussia's position.

What was the Schleswig-Holstein problem?

It involved conflicts over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, leading to tensions between Prussia and Austria.

What was the outcome of the Austro-Prussian War?

Prussia defeated Austria at Königgrätz, solidifying its dominance in Germany and paving the way for unification.

What were the reasons for Prussia's swift victory at Königgrätz?

Superior tactics, the ability to deploy troops by railways, and the use of new breech-loading guns.

What did the Treaty of Prague entail?

It included no reparations, the transfer of Venetia to Italy, and Austria's withdrawal from German affairs.

What was the North German Confederation?

It included all German states north of the River Main, with the King of Prussia as president and Bismarck as chancellor.

What triggered the Franco-Prussian War?

The candidacy of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern for the Spanish throne alarmed France.

What was the outcome of the Franco-Prussian War?

Germany achieved a decisive victory, leading to the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine and the proclamation of the German Empire.

How did Bismarck manipulate the Ems Telegram?

He sensationalized it to provoke French outrage, leading to the declaration of war by France.

What were the terms of the Treaty of Frankfurt?

It imposed a large indemnity on France, resulted in the occupation of France, and led to the loss of Alsace and most of Lorraine.

What characterized the Second Industrial Revolution?

Technological breakthroughs, the introduction of assembly line techniques, and significant shifts in labor practices.

What were some changes in European life at mid-century?

Farming was the main occupation, large factories were few, and sailing ships outnumbered steamships.

What were the phases of the Second Industrial Revolution?

Phase 1 (1850-1870) saw a shift to machine production, urban population growth, and improvements in workers' living conditions.

What impact did the Second Industrial Revolution have on women and children?

It led to dramatic changes in their roles, with many women moving away from factory work to domestic roles.

What was the significance of the rise of the middle class in the 19th century?

It corresponded to its economic power, leading to increased political and social influence.

What was the role of Napoleon III in the events leading to German unification?

His desire to maintain French dominance clashed with Bismarck's ambitions, leading to the Franco-Prussian War.

What was the impact of the Ems Telegram on Franco-German relations?

It escalated tensions and directly led to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War.

What time period does Phase 2 cover?

1870-1914

What characterizes the companies emerging during Phase 2?

They are giant and multinational enterprises.