hazards aqa a level geography paper 1

outline the geophysical nature, form and potential impacts of natural hazards

The nature of geophysical hazards is land processes caused by internal processes within the earth. The main forms include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, landslides and mudflows- mostly events driven by seismic and volcanic activity. These hazards cannot lead to a range of impacts such as property damage, loss of life, displacement of people and economic disruption

Outline the atmospheric nature, form and potential imapcts of natural hazards

The nature of atmospheric hazards is meteorological and climatic processes, these are caused by changes within the atmosphere. The main forms include tropical storms and wildfires. This causes many potential impacts such as property damage, loss of life, economic disruption and displacement of people

outline the hydrological nature, forms and potential impacts of natural hazards

The nature of hydrological hazards are the disruption and movement of water. This causes forms of natural hazards like floods. This leads to potential impacts of infrastructure damage, economic distortions and displacement of people.

Outline the concept of hazard perception

Hazard perception refers to how individuals or societies view the threat posed by natural hazards. It is influenced by factors such as past experiences, level of education and cultural background. People may perceive hazards as unavoidable (fatalism), manageable (adaptation), or preventable (mitigation). These perceptions affect how people prepare for, respond to, and recover from hazard events.

explain the economic determinants of hazard perception

The main economic factor of hazard perception is wealth. This is because wealthy areas can afford to design, build and retrofit infrastructure. This allows for people to feel safe. This creates a calm perception. Furthermore, wealthy areas can invest in education. This ensures that residents are fully aware of the risks and dangers and the appropriate measures to prepare, adapt and mitigate are taken. This changes perceptions of hazards from fear to confidence.

outline the cultural determinants of hazard perception

The main cultural determinant of hazard perception is values or beliefs and whether scientists and the government are trusted. This is because some cultures believe that hazards are an act of god and therefore cannot be prevented or adapted to. This changes the perception to fear. A lesser cultural determinant is experience. This is because people who have experienced hazards could either be more fearful due to previous hazards negatively impacting their life or have a more positive output because they have experienced detrimental hazards in the past and therefore nothing could be worse.

outline the concept of fatalism as a response to a natural hazard

Fatalism is the idea that people cannot influence or shape the outcomes of a hazard and therefore it cannot be mitigated against. This is typically the perspective and response in countries with strong religious beliefs like voodooism. An example of this is in Haiti where the residents believe that Haiti is a woman and the earthquakes are a result of treating her poorly.

explain the concept of prediction as a response to a natural hazard

Prediction involves using scientific methods and technology to forecast when and where a natural hazard might occur. Prediction allows for government officials to issue early warnings, helping people. This can reduce the impact of the hazard leading to fewer deaths. For example, meteorologists can monitor satellites to track tropical storms helping areas predicted to be affected evacuated

outline the concept of adaptation as a response to a natural hazard

Adaptation is the attempts by people or communities to live with a hazard. This is achieved by adjusting living conditions to reduce vulnerability as it is accepted that the hazard cannot be prevented, but the impact can be. For example, in earthquake zones, buildings can be retrofitted to be earthquake resistant such as the glass cathedral in Los Angeles, California. Another example could be building houses raised on stilts to reduce flood damage from tropical storms

explain the concept of mitigation as a response to a natural hazard

Mitigation involves taking action to reduce or eliminate the long term risk from natural hazards. It focuses on minimising the impact before that hazard occurs. An example could be building sea walls to protect against storm surges. Another example could be controlled burning in fire prone zones to remove flammable vegetation, reducing the risk of wildfires

outline the concept of risk sharing as a response to a natural hazard

Risk sharing involves spreading financial or social impacts of a hazard across individuals, communities or governments. This helps to ensure that no one suffers all the losses alone after a natural disaster. An example is insurance which is paid regularly so if affected people can receive help to cover damages on their property. Another example could be governments investing in disaster relief funds to support affected communities.

Outline the concept of the park model

The park model is a diagram which shows how hazards can have varying impacts on a location over time. There are three stages of the park model: relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction. Relief is the immediate response after a disaster, providing medical attention and overall care for those affected. This lasts for hours - days. The next stage is rehabilitation, this takes days to weeks and involves trying to return the area back to normal by providing, food, water, shelter. The final and longest stage is reconstruction. This takes weeks to years and involves rebuilding infrastructure and repairing properties as well as education.

outline the concept of the hazard management cycle

The hazard management cycle is continuous loop which explains an approach to managing a known hazard. Preparedness is concerned with using evidence and data from previous events to plan for hazards associated with the event. Response is concerned with deploying services and resources to save people and property from harm, involving search and rescue and emergency services. Recovery this is concerned with post disaster reconstruction and restoration of the local built and natural environment. Mitigation is an extension to recovery and is the active steps taken to minimise the negative impacts associated with the hazard

Outline the earth's structure

The earth has 4 layers making up the structure, the crust, mantle, inner and outer cores. The thickest is the inner core which is 5100km thick and solid due to pressure density. Next is the outer core which is 2900km thick and liquid. The third layer is the mantle which is 2900km thick. It is ductile and rigid. Between the mantle and the crust is the aesthenosphere this is molten and 100-700km thick. The final layer is the lithosphere which is the crust. This is up to 100km and is divided up into 7 continents.

Outline the internal energy sources of the earth

The main internal energy source is primordial heat. This is left over from the earth's formation. A lesser form of energy is radiogenic heat. This is produced by the decay of radio active isotopes.

Explain plate tectonic theory

This is the idea that originally there was one continent (Pangea). This has been proved both geologically through South America and west Africa fitting together and biologically through identical plant fossils being found in India and Antarctica. Due to convection currents, these plates move relative to one another. When the plates sit along a constructive boundary, they pull apart forming oceans and landforms. Alternatively, plates can sit along a destructive boundary and therefore push together leading to land being pushed up forming mountains.

Outline the process of gravitational sliding

Gravitational sliding is the process of tectonic plates moving at a constructive boundary, away from a mid ocean ridge. As magma rises, it creates new, elevated crust at the ridge, forming a slope. Gravity then causes the newly formed rock to slide down the slope, pulling the plate with it. This drives plate motion along with other processes like slab pull

Outline the process of ridge push and slab pull

Ridge push occurs when magma rises at mid ocean ridges creating new elevated crust that slides away due to gravity. This pushes tectonic plates apart, helping to drive plate movement. Slab pull occurs when a denser oceanic plate sinks into the mantle at a subduction zone. As the plate sinks, it pulls the rest of the plate with it, making it a major driving force of plate movement.

Explain the relationship between convection currents and sea floor spreading

There is a strong relationship between convection currents and sea floor spreading. This is because under the ocean are tectonic plates. Between these plates are convection currents which drag the plates. When they move on a constructive boundary, the sea floor pulls apart creating new sea floor. An example is the mid Atlantic ridge along a constructive boundary meaning that the plates pulls apart creating a new sea floor.

Outline destructive plate boundaries

Destructive boundaries with oceanic and continental plates colliding leads to the denser, oceanic plate subducting beneath the continental plate. This creates deep ocean trenches. When two continental plates collide they form fold mountains like the Himalayas. Two oceanic plates can also collide. This leads to the denser plate being subducted underneath such as the pacific plate moving under the Philippine sea plate in the Mariana Trench.

Outline constructive plate boundaries

At constructive plate boundaries, when the plates move apart, magma rises ton fill the gap. This creates new crust. In oceans this creates oceanic ridges like the mid Atlantic ridge. On land this can form rift valleys as the land can fall into the gap. An example is the East African rift valley.

Outline conservative plate boundaries

At conservative boundaries, the plates move parallel to each other at different speeds. When the plates become stuck due to unsmooth movement it causes pressure leading to an earthquake being release. An example is San Francisco 1906 earthquake which occurred along the San Andreas fault

Outline the formations young fold mountains

Young fold mountains form along a destructive plate boundary. Here two continental plates. Because both plates have the same density, neither is subdued and therefore, the crust is forced upwards. When the plates are pushed up the layers of rock become compressed and folded creating high mountain ranges like the Himalayas.

Explain the formation of rift valleys

Rift valleys form along a constructive boundary. This means that the plates pulls apart when tension forces occur. when this happens, blocks of land fall, creating valleys. The land either side of the blocks remains higher forming horsts. An example is the great African rift valley in east Africa.

Outline how ocean ridges are formed

Ocean ridges form at constructive plate boundaries. Her the tectonic plates pulls apart. When this happens, magma rises, filling the gap in the mantle. When this cools and solidifies, it forms new oceanic crust. Overtime, repeated eruptions occur, forming a ridge such as the mid Atlantic ridge

Explain the formation of deep sea trenches

Deep sea trenches form at destructive plate boundaries. This is where continental or oceanic plates meet. The denser (oceanic) plate is forced underneath (subduction). As this plate subducts, it creates a deep and narrow depression in the ocean floor. An example is the Marian trench where the pacific plate subducts under the Mariana plate.

Outline how island arcs are formed

Island arcs are formed at destructive plate boundaries. Here, the denser oceanic plate is subducted beneath oceanic or continental plates. When the subducted plate sinks, it melts due to heat and pressure creating magma. This magma rises through the crust, erupting to form a volcanic island. Over time, a curved chain is formed parallel to the trench. E.g. the Mariana islands.

Explain the formation of volcanoes

At destructive plate boundaries, the oceanic plate subducts beneath the continental plate. This melts in the mantle forming magma. The magma then rises through cracks in the crust due to pressure and erupts as lava on the surface. Repeated eruptions build layers of lava and ash forming volcanic cones. An example is Mount Etna.

Outline the relationship between magma plumes and plate movement

Magma Plumes or hotspots are one of the driver for the effect of conventional currents which is the movement from high to lower pressures. This consequently moves the crust above where the direction of the plume moves. As the plates moves, it creates a chain of volcanic islands with the youngest directly above the plume. An example is the Hawaiian island chain in the Pacific Ocean.

Outline the nature of vulcanicity

Vulcanicity is a geological process where magma (molten rock) rises from Earth's mantle and erupts onto the surface or into the ocean, causing various hazards and shaping the landscape. It is linked to plate tectonics and at destructive plate boundaries it leads to explosive eruptions and magma formations. At constructive plate boundaries it leads to

Vulcanicity includes both volcanic eruptions and features formed beneath the surface. Volcanic eruptions produce landforms like volcanoes, lava plateaus and ash layers. Beneath the surface features like sills are formed when magma cools and solidifies underground

Outline the relationship between vulcanicity and plate tectonics

There is a strong relationship between vulcanicity and plate tectonics. This is because most volcanic activity occurs at plate boundaries. This is due to tectonic movement allowing magma to reach the surface of the crust. At destructive boundaries like the pacific ring of fire, there is intense volcanic activity due to subduction and melting of the oceanic plate. However some volcanoes occur away from boundaries at hot spots where magma rises through fixed points in the mantle such as Hawaii.

Explain the formation of nuees ardentes

Nuées ardentes form during explosive volcanic eruptions. This is from the lava dome collapsing or if the eruption collumn becomes too heavy. This causes the material to rush down the volcano's slops, travelling at over 100km/hour. This destroys everything due to the high temperatures and speed.

Outline the cause of lava flows

The main cause of lava flows is pressure build up in the magma chamber being released through an eruption. This is also caused by tectonic activity such as constructive plate boundaries forming hot spots which magma rises through fractures such as Hawaii. Lava flows are also caused by the type of lava- basaltic lava is runny and flows further than viscous lava.

Outline the formation of mudflows

Mudflows form when volcanic ash and loose material mixes with water from heavy rain or snow melt. This leaves a saturated mix which flows downhill under gravity. Becuase the mixture is heavy and under the influence of gravity, it can travel rapidly and cause widespread destruction particularly in populated areas.

Explain the causes of acid rain

the main cause of acid rain is sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides being released into the atmosphere this can be emitted from volcanoes. Whilst in the atmosphere, they react with water vapour to form sulphuric acid and nitric acid. When the clouds become saturated with water vapour / sulphuric acid and nitric acid, rainfall is released that is more acidic than normal causing acid rain.

Outline the concept of ash fallout

Ash fallout is volcanic ash ejected into the atmosphere during an eruption which then falls back to the ground. The ash is made up of tiny rock, mineral and volcanic glass fragments. Because the particles are tiny, they can be carried long distances by wind affecting areas far away. This can disrupt air travel such as flights. An example is the Iceland 2010 volcano which disrupted flights for 6 days due to ash in the atmosphere.

Outline the spatial distribution of volcanic hazards

Volcanic hazards are mainly found along tectonic plate boundaries, particularly destructive and constructive margins. Some volcanoes are intra -plate, away from boundaries due to hotspot activity such as Hawaii. The pacific ring of fire is major volcanic activity zone surrounding the pacific ocean. The distribution of volcanoes is uneven with more volcanoes near subduction boundaries than collision boundaries.

Explain magnitude and frequency of volcanic hazards

There is an inverse relationship between magnitude and frequency of volcanoes. High magnitude volcanoes are more explosive and happen less frequently. This is becuase they require longer periods of time for enough pressure and magma to build up. Low magnitude eruptions are more frequent. This is becuase less magma is needed for these eruptions and therefore pressure builds up quicker.

Outline the predictability of volcanic hazards

Volcanic hazards are more predictable than other hazards. This is becuase there are usually warning signs before eruptions such as seismic activity, gas emission and ground deformation which can show rising magma. Seismometers and satellite imagery can help forecast eruptions with accuracy however, the exact timing is hard to predict and some volcanoes can erupt without warning.

Outline common primary impacts of volcanic hazards

The main primary impact that occurs from volcanic hazards is tephra which is solid material varying in grain sizes which has been ejected into the atmosphere. Another common primary impact is pyroclastic flows. These are very hot, gas charged, high velocity mixture of tephra and gas that flow down the sides of a volcano. Lava flows are a further impact. These are unstoppable and therefore can damage crops, buildings and block roads. Volcanic gases are another impact. This can pollute the air and bodies of water causing injuries to people

Explain common secondary impacts of volcanic hazards

Lahars are unconsolidated ash from recent eruptions combined with water in hot dense mudflows. Another secondary impact is flooding. When volcanoes erupt near glaciers and ice, it melts them, this can result in serious flooding as large volumes of water is released. Acid rain is further impact. When volcanic gases are emitted, they can combine with atmospheric moisture and therefore it results in acid rain. Tsunamis can be another impact of volcanic hazards as large sea waves can be generated from violent volcanic eruptions.

Outline common environmental impacts of volcanic hazards

Volcanic hazards can destroy ecosystems through lava flows and ash burying plants, animals and habitats. Ash fallout can reduce sunlight, affecting photosynthesis and the climate in the short term. Gases like sulphur dioxide can lead to acid rain, damaging soil, water and vegetation sources. Volcanic activity can also change river systems and cause long term soil enrichment from ash deposits.

Explain common economic impacts volcanic hazards

Volcanic hazard can damage infrastructure. This can lead to high repair and reconstruction costs. Another economic impacts is ash clouds which can disrupt air travel creating economic losses for airlines and tourism. Governments may face huge costs for emergency responses and rebuilding. Farms and businesses may have to close or be destroyed which can reduce employment leading to incomes reducing.

Outline common social impacts of volcanic hazards

Volcanoes can cause loss of life and injuries due to lava flows, ash and pyroclastic flows. People may be forced to evacuate- displacement and homelessness. Gas and ash may contaminate water supplies and the atmosphere affecting health such as respiratory issues. Education, healthcare and transport disruptions will affect daily life and normality.

Explain common political impacts of volcanic hazards

Governments may face criticism for poor disaster response or lack of preparation- this could lead to political unrest. Authorities may have to declare state of emergency- governance and stability affected. Large scale impacts may require international aid, affecting foreign relations. The cost of recovery may shift government spending policies impacting long term policies.

Outline short term impacts of volcanic hazards

Immediate loss of life and injuries from lava flows, ash and pyroclastic flows. Air quality and water supplies being affected by ash and gas causing health issues. Emergency services and aid may be overwhelmed, delaying rescue and relief efforts

Explain long term impacts of volcanic hazards

Long term impacts include rebuilding homes and infrastructure. Long term health problems may occur due to prolonged exposure to ash and contaminated water. Positive long term impacts are fertile soils, increasing agriculture. Economic recovery can take years with businesses closing and losing income affecting communities

Outline risk management designed to reduce the risks of volcanoes

Monitoring and prediction using seismometers, gas sensors, satellite imagery help to forecast eruptions. Evacuation plans and exclusion zones can reduce loss of life and injuries when eruptions are expected. Public education and emergency drills can help communities prepare and respond effectively. Governments may build protective infrastructure to limit damages.

Explain preparedness as a response to a volcanic hazard

Volcanoes can be monitored and therefore, people can be evacuated from danger zones.

Outline prevention as a response to volcanic hazards

Volcanic hazards cannot be prevented as they are a release of pressure, however, volcanic eruptions can be prepared for and adapted to such as evacuating or using the land surrounding volcanoes for crops.

Explain adaptation as a response to volcanic hazards

adaptation in response to volcanic hazards can be demonstrated through using area surrounding volcanoes for farming and crops. this is because the soil is extremely fertile. an example could be in iceland?

Outline the nature of seismicity

Seismicity refers to the frequency, type and distribution of earthquakes in a given area. It is caused by sudden movements of tectonic plates along faults or boundaries. Seismic events can range from minor tremors to major earthquakes, depending on the amount of energy released. Earthquakes are measured by magnitude on the Richter scale and intensity on the Mercalli scale to assess their impact

Explain the relationship between seismicity and plate tectonics

There is a strong relationship between seismicity and plate tectonics. This is because the majority of seismic events take place along plate boundaries. This is due to a build up of pressure between to plates who move slightly and get stuck. The most famous boundary is the San Andreas fault in California at a conservative boundary between the pacific plate and North American plate.

Outline the forms of seismic hazards

Liquefaction happens when saturated soils lose strength during shaking, causing buildings to sink or collapse. Landslides occur when slopes become unstable after seismic activity. Earthquakes happen when tectonic plate movements have a sudden release of energy causing the ground to shake. Tsunamis occur when large volumes of water are suddenly displaced by undersea earthquakes.

Outline the causes of an earthquake

The main cause of an earthquake is the release of built up stress along fault lines in the earth's crust. This occurs when tectonic plates are moving past, towards or away from each other. This causes rocks to fracture and shift, releasing energy as seismic waves. For example, the Haiti earthquake 2010 was along a conservative boundary between North American and Caribbean plates.

Explain the concept of shockwaves

Shock waves are the vibrations of energy released from the focus of the earthquake. These travel through the crust causing the ground to shake. There are primary and secondary waves and surface waves. The intensity and impact of the shock waves depends on the depth of the focus and the magnitude of the earthquake.

Explain the causes of a tsunami

The main cause of a tsunami is the displacement of water from undersea earthquakes at subduction zones. This sudden movement of the sea floor displacement generates waves. This displaced water forms waves that travel across the ocean, increasing in height as they approach shallow coastal areas.

Outline the process of liquefaction

Liquefaction is when loose soils behave like a liquid. This is because of intense shaking such as seismic activity. Saturated soils like sand and silt become compressed. This makes infrastructure unstable and therefore can cause threats to people.

Outline the process of landslides

Landslides occur when gravity causes rock, earth or debris to move down a slope. They are often triggered by heavy rainfall, which saturates the soil, reducing friction and making slopes unstable. Earthquakes or volcanic activity can also shake slopes, causing sudden movement of material. Aftershocks can cause further slope failure, especially if the initial earthquake has already weakened the ground.

Explain spatial distribution of seismic hazards

Seismic hazards are primarily concentrated along tectonic plate boundaries, where plates are either colliding, sliding or pulling apart. The ring of fire is a major area with frequent earthquakes as it is home to subduction zones and transform faults. Earthquake distribution is closely linked to plate tectonics, with more frequent activity at convergent and transform boundaries. For example, the Haiti 2010 earthquake occurred along a conservative boundary between North American plate and Caribbean plate.

Outline the magnitude and frequency of seismic hazards

The magnitude of seismic hazards is measured by the moment magnitude scale, quantifying the energy released during an earthquake. High magnitude earthquakes are less frequency but cause significant impacts. Low magnitude earthquakes are less frequent but often cause minimal destruction. The frequency of seismic hazards is linked to plate boundary activity, with some areas experiencing earthquakes regularly while others may have long gaps between events

Outline the predictability of seismic hazards

Seismic hazards are not accurately predictable. Therefore, it can be hard to prep for them. However, areas and regions can be monitored for movement along with using previous data to give a general idea of risk but not timing. Sometimes foreshocks precede major earthquakes but they are not a reliable indicator for all events. Monitoring of seismic activity can help identify high risk areas but not precise prediction

Outline common primary impacts of seismic hazards

Ground shaking can cause buildings to collapse, leading to damage to infrastructure and loss of life. Surface rupture occurs when faults break the surface, damaging roads, railways, and pipelines. Landslides can be triggered by seismic activity, blocking roads and causing further destruction. Tsunamis may be generated by undersea earthquakes, leading to widespread coastal flooding and damage to coastal settlements.

Explain common secondary impacts of seismic hazards

Fires can be triggered by damaged gas lines or electrical faults, causing further destruction and hindering rescue efforts. Economic disruption occurs as businesses close, supply chains are disrupted, and recovery costs increase. Disease outbreaks can result from contaminated water supplies and poor sanitation after the destruction of infrastructure. Social instability may arise as communities face long-term displacement, resource shortages, and the strain on emergency services.

Outline environmental impacts of seismic hazards

Landscapes can be altered by surface ruptures and fault lines, creating permanent changes to the topography. Soil liquefaction occurs when saturated soil loses strength due to shaking, leading to land subsidence and damage to vegetation. Fires caused by broken gas lines or electrical failures can lead to damage to natural ecosystems, including forests and wetlands. Tsunamis generated by undersea earthquakes can cause coastal erosion, salinization of soil, and destruction of habitats like mangroves and coral reefs.

Explain social impacts of seismic hazards

Loss of life is one of the most significant social impacts, as buildings collapse and infrastructure is destroyed, leading to casualties. Displacement of people occurs as homes are damaged or destroyed, forcing people to seek shelter in temporary accommodation. Increased poverty can result as people lose their livelihoods and assets, leading to long-term economic hardship. Psychological trauma affects survivors, including stress, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to the devastation and loss of life.

Outline economic impacts of seismic hazards

Damage to infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and buildings can disrupt local economies and require costly repairs. Loss of businesses occurs as shops, factories, and offices are destroyed or forced to close, leading to job losses and reduced productivity. Cost of recovery can be immense, as governments and aid organizations spend large amounts on rebuilding and disaster response. Disruption to tourism happens when popular destinations are damaged, leading to a loss of income for local businesses and governments.

Explain political impacts of seismic hazards

Government response to seismic hazards may be criticized if the response is slow or inefficient, leading to loss of public trust. Political instability can arise if there is a lack of resources or unequal distribution of aid, potentially leading to social unrest. Policy changes may occur as governments implement stricter building regulations or improve disaster preparedness in response to the earthquake. International relations can be affected as countries offer or receive foreign aid, which can influence diplomatic relations and strengthen alliances.

Explain short term impacts of seismic hazards

Immediate loss of life occurs due to collapsing buildings, landslides, and other hazards caused by the earthquake. Injury and medical emergencies lead to pressure on healthcare systems as hospitals and clinics may be damaged or overwhelmed. Disruption to transport and communication can hinder emergency responses and prevent people from escaping danger or accessing aid. Damage to basic infrastructure like water, electricity, and sewage systems can create urgent public health risks and disrupt daily life.

Outline long term impacts of seismic hazards

Economic recovery can be slow, with businesses struggling to reopen and regions facing long-term unemployment and poverty. Displacement of communities may last for years, with people living in temporary shelters or being permanently relocated. Environmental damage such as changes to landscapes, ecosystems, and agricultural land may have lasting effects on local resources and food production. Psychological impacts on survivors, including trauma, anxiety, and long-term mental health challenges, can persist for many years.

Outline risk management designed to reduce the risks of seismic hazards

Risk management involves assessing potential risks and implementing strategies to reduce the impacts of seismic hazards. Preparedness, mitigation, prevention, and adaptation are key strategies to reduce seismic hazard risks. Monitoring and early warning systems (e.g. seismic activity detection) allow authorities to issue alerts and evacuate areas at risk. Education and public awareness campaigns can ensure communities understand risks and how to respond to seismic events.

Explain preparedness as a response to a seismic hazard

Preparedness involves actions taken before an earthquake to minimize loss of life and property damage. Governments and local authorities often develop emergency response plans, including evacuation routes and shelters. Seismic building codes ensure structures can withstand shaking, reducing damage and casualties. Public education programs teach individuals how to drop, cover, and hold on during an earthquake, enhancing personal safety.

Outline mitigation as a response to a seismic hazard

Mitigation involves actions taken to reduce the severity of impacts once an earthquake has occurred. Strengthening infrastructure, such as retrofitting buildings and bridges, reduces the risk of collapse during seismic events. Land-use zoning prevents construction in high-risk areas, such as near fault lines or on unstable soil. Disaster relief funds can be allocated for long-term recovery and rebuilding efforts, helping communities recover faster.

Explain prevention as a response to a seismic hazard

Prevention focuses on reducing the likelihood of seismic hazards occurring, though earthquakes cannot be prevented. However, some human activities (e.g., mining or large-scale construction) that might induce earthquakes can be managed through regulation. Controlling deforestation reduces the risk of landslides, which can be triggered by seismic activity. Research into plate tectonics helps us understand the locations and risks of potential seismic events, though complete prevention is not possible.

Outline adaptation as a response to a seismic hazard

Prevention focuses on reducing the likelihood of seismic hazards occurring, though earthquakes cannot be prevented. However, some human activities (e.g., mining or large-scale construction) that might induce earthquakes can be managed through regulation. Controlling deforestation reduces the risk of landslides, which can be triggered by seismic activity. Research into plate tectonics helps us understand the locations and risks of potential seismic events, though complete prevention is not possible.

Outline the nature of wildfires

Wildfires are uncontrolled rural fires that spread rapidly through vegetation. They can be surface fires, crown fires, or ground fires, depending on what part of vegetation is burning. Wildfires are a natural hazard but can also be human-induced. They can occur in a range of climates but are most common in dry, hot areas like Mediterranean or savanna regions.

Explain the conditions favouring intense wildfires

Dry conditions and high temperatures dry out vegetation, creating easily combustible fuel. Low humidity and strong winds spread flames quickly across large areas. A long-term drought can leave vegetation tinder-dry, increasing intensity. Steep slopes encourage rapid fire movement uphill.

Outline how vegetation can create conditions for intense wildfires

Dense vegetation provides more fuel, making fires more intense. Oily or resinous plants (e.g. eucalyptus or pine) ignite easily and burn hotter. Dead and dry plant matter, such as leaves and twigs, builds up and acts as kindling. Forest litter and undergrowth create a continuous fuel path for fires to spread.

Explain how climate can create conditions for intense wildfires

the main way the climate can create conditions for intense wildfires is a reduction in precipitation. this means that the vegetation is dry and therefore is more susceptible to ignition.

Explain the causes of wildfires

Lightning strikes are a natural ignition source, especially in dry climates. Human causes include campfires, discarded cigarettes, or arson. Power lines and electrical faults can spark fires in dry, windy conditions. Slash-and-burn agriculture or land clearing can lead to fires spreading out of control.

Outline the natural causes of wildfires

The main natural cause of wildfires is climate. This is because intense sunlight, lack of rainfall and weather events like lightning fuel the fire. Lack of rainfall is one of the main natural causes because it means that vegetation lacks moisture and therefore is dry and brittle. This means that it can get hotter and react to hot temperatures quicker?

Explain the human causes of wildfires

The main human cause of wildfires is carelessness. This is because with improper disposal of cigarettes or disposable barbecues, this can ignite fires that become intense and hard to control.

Outline the common primary impacts of wildfires

Destruction of property and infrastructure, including homes, roads, and power lines. Loss of life or injuries to people and animals caught in the fire. Damage to ecosystems, with immediate loss of flora and fauna. Air pollution from smoke and particulates affecting local and regional air quality.

Explain the common secondary impacts of wildfires

Soil erosion and landslides occur after vegetation is burned away. Water contamination as ash and debris enter rivers and water systems. Displacement of people and long-term mental health effects like trauma. Economic disruption due to insurance losses, rebuilding costs, and loss of tourism.

Outline common environmental impacts of wildfires

Loss of biodiversity as habitats are destroyed. Soil degradation, including loss of nutrients and increased erosion. Air pollution from smoke contributes to climate change and poor air quality. Release of carbon dioxide from burning vegetation increases greenhouse gases.

Explain the common social impacts of wildfires

Displacement of communities as homes and services are destroyed. Health problems such as respiratory issues from smoke inhalation. Loss of life or injuries to residents and emergency responders. Mental health issues, including stress, anxiety, and PTSD.

Outline the common economic impacts of wildfires

High costs of firefighting efforts, including equipment, personnel, and aircraft. Damage to property and infrastructure leads to insurance claims and rebuilding expenses. Loss of income in sectors like agriculture, forestry, and tourism. Long-term economic disruption as businesses are destroyed and investments are lost.

Explain the common political impacts of wildfires

High costs of firefighting efforts, including equipment, personnel, and aircraft. Damage to property and infrastructure leads to insurance claims and rebuilding expenses. Loss of income in sectors like agriculture, forestry, and tourism. Long-term economic disruption as businesses are destroyed and investments are lost.

Outline the short term responses to wildfires

Evacuation of people from affected areas to ensure safety. Deployment of emergency services, including firefighters, helicopters, and water bombers. Setting up emergency shelters and providing food, water, and medical care. Use of media and alerts to keep the public informed and reduce panic.

Explain the long term responses to wildfires

Evacuation of people from affected areas to ensure safety. Deployment of emergency services, including firefighters, helicopters, and water bombers. Setting up emergency shelters and providing food, water, and medical care. Use of media and alerts to keep the public informed and reduce panic.

Outline risk management designed to reduce the impacts of wildfires

Controlled burns to reduce fuel load in fire-prone areas. Creating fire breaks (gaps in vegetation) to slow the spread of fires. Monitoring systems like satellites and weather forecasting for early detection. Community education on fire risks and safety measures.

Explain preparedness as a response to wildfires

Public awareness campaigns teach people how to react when a wildfire occurs. Evacuation plans and drills ensure communities can respond quickly. Training of emergency services prepares them to act efficiently. Pre-positioning equipment like water tankers near high-risk areas improves response time.

Outline mitigation as a response to wildfires

Building regulations requiring fire-resistant materials in fire-prone areas. Land-use planning to avoid building in high-risk zones. Vegetation management, such as clearing undergrowth to reduce fuel. Installing sprinkler systems in vulnerable buildings to reduce damage.

Explain prevention as a response to wildfires

Banning open fires and fireworks during dry seasons reduces ignition sources. Strict regulation of land use, including forest access and activity permits. Surveillance and patrols to deter arson and catch accidental ignitions early. Education programs raise awareness of behaviours that can start fires.

Outline adaptation as a response to wildfires

Banning open fires and fireworks during dry seasons reduces ignition sources. Strict regulation of land use, including forest access and activity permits. Surveillance and patrols to deter arson and catch accidental ignitions early. Education programs raise awareness of behaviours that can start fires.

Explain the nature of tropical storms

Tropical storms are intense low-pressure weather systems that form over warm ocean waters. They bring strong winds, heavy rain, storm surges, and flooding. They rotate anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Known by different names such as hurricanes, cyclones, or typhoons depending on the region.

Outline the underlying causes of tropical storms

the main underlying cause of tropical storms is low pressure systems which draw in warm moist air which rises from the warm oceans. This releases latent heat, fuelling the storm. Another cause is warm oceans above 26.5˚C. This provides heat and moisture needed. Another further cause is the latitude of the ocean - normally between 5˚ and 20˚ N and S of the equator as the Coriolis effect occurs. Another underlying cause is minimal vertical wind this allows to the storm to strengthen without being torn apart.

Explain the forms of storm hazards

Strong winds cause widespread structural damage, uprooting trees and bringing power lines down. Storm surges caused by low pressure and high winds flood areas. Heavy rainfall can lead to flash flooding and river flooding. This can damage homes, crops and transport. Landslides may occur in hilly or mountainous areas due to saturated soils after intense rainfall.

Outline the causes of storm surges in tropical storms

the main cause of a storm surge is low atmospheric pressure in the centre of the storm, allowing sea levels to rise. Strong winds from the storm push the water towards the coastline, increasing water height. The shape of the coastline can funnel the storm surge into smaller areas, intensifying the height of the surge. High tides, especially during full moon or spring tide can combine with the storm surge, worsening coastal flooding

Explain the causes of coastal flooding in tropical storms

Strong winds and low pressure pushes large volumes of water towards the coast, leading to flooding. Heavy rainfall from the storm increase the amount of water entering rives and drainage systems which can lead to overland flow and coastal flooding. The shape of the coastline can exacerbate flooding as narrow bays/ estuaries can funnel water, raising flood levels. High tides, combined with storm surges and rainfall and intensify the extent of coastal flooding