psychology exam

Validity

Validity focuses on the accuracy of a measure or whether it truly measures what it's intended to measure.

Reliability

Reliability focuses on the consistency of a measure.

Cluster Sampling

Using pre-existing groups like classrooms. Randomly select groups instead of individuals.

Test-Retest Reliability

Scores will be similar on occasions using the same test.

Parallel Forms Reliability

Two similar measures giving similar results.

Inter Rater Reliability

Cannot be used for surveys; judges agree on observed behavior.

Internal Consistency

Two halves on the same survey yielding similar scores.

Milgram Study

The Milgram study tested participants' moral beliefs against demands of authority, raising questions on ethics of psychological experimentation.

Deception in Psychological Research

Deception is withholding information or misleading participants, which must be justified.

Primary Source

The actual peer-reviewed journal article.

Secondary Source

Usually a summary of a primary article, such as textbooks or review articles.

Debriefing

Explaining the nature and purpose of the project, counteracting negative effects, justifying deception, and answering questions.

Probability Sampling

Where everyone in a population has a chance of getting selected.

Nonprobability Sampling

Not all population members can participate.

Problems with Secondary Sources

May not be accurate, containing errors, omissions, biases, interpretations, or outdated information.

Psychological Construct

A hypothetical idea or concept that cannot be measured tangibly, such as love or jealousy.

Methods of Acquiring Knowledge

Includes tenacity, intuition, authority, rational method, and empiricism.

Problems with Other Knowledge Methods

1. Tenacity: no way of telling correct from incorrect. 2. Authority: expertise may be questionable. 3. Rational method: humans are poor at abstract logic. 4. Empiricism: senses can deceive.

Good Scientific Hypothesis

A hypothesis that is testable and falsifiable.

Scientific Hypothesis

A good scientific hypothesis in psychology is testable, falsifiable, specific, and grounded in existing knowledge or theory.

Active Deception

Misleading information is presented to participants.

Passive Deception

Withholding information from participants, which can only be done when it doesn't present significant risk.

Criticisms of Sampling Methods

Criticisms center around the potential for bias, limitations in generalizability, and the difficulty in achieving truly representative samples, impacting the validity and reliability of research findings.

Biased Samples

If sampling is not done correctly, it could obtain a biased sample, where the sample doesn't accurately represent the entire population, leading to biased results.

Scientific Method Steps

1. Observe behavior or other phenomena. 2. Form a tentative answer or explanation. 3. Use the hypothesis to generate a testable prediction. 4. Use observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis.

Informed Consent

A process that involves sharing information, ensuring understanding, and promoting voluntary decision making, important for research and psychotherapy.

Willowbrook Hepatitis Project

A controversial study conducted from 1956 to 1971 involving deliberately infecting children with hepatitis to study the disease and develop a vaccine.

Principles of the Scientific Method

The three principles are empiricism, skepticism, and objectivity.

Questions the Scientific Method Can Answer

Empirical questions that focus on observable, measurable, and testable aspects of behavior, mental processes, and their underlying mechanisms.

Operational Definitions

The way of defining the manner in which a psychological construct will be measured.

Ceiling Effects

When scores are all at the high end of a score, for example, everyone scores high on a test or self-esteem in the United States.

Floor Effects

When scores are at the low end, for example, if a test was very hard and the test results are low.

Science vs. Pseudoscience

Science relies on empirical evidence, rigorous testing, and a commitment to falsifiability, while pseudoscience often relies on beliefs, anecdotal evidence, and a lack of testability or falsifiability.

Fraud in Research

Negligible patients were enrolled on trials; fictitious patients were also enrolled; some patients were pressured to enter trials; laboratory data were altered; results were fabricated.

Systematic Sources for Research Ideas

Sources that follow a structured approach to generating research ideas.

Nonsystematic Sources for Research Ideas

Sources that do not follow a structured approach and may be more random or anecdotal.

Scales of Measurement

The different ways in which variables can be measured in research.

Nominal

You have numbers that represent categories; numbers that have no real meaning; qualitative.

Ordinal

Ranking or numbers; numbers have meaning, but distance between them is not equal.

Interval

Numbers represent equal distances between measurements; but there is no absolute zero; and you can have negative numbers.

Ratio

Numbers are meaningful algebraically, equal distances; there IS an absolute zero.

Ways to minimize experimenter bias

Researchers employ several key strategies, primarily focusing on standardization, blinding, and minimizing researcher interaction with participants.

Parts of a scientific article in psychology

Abstract, Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, and References.

Features of a representative sample

Representative samples are necessary for generalizing to a population. It's free from bias, and shows how closely a sample resembles the target population.

Demand characteristics

Any potential cues/features of study that (1) suggest to participant what purpose/hypothesis is, & (2) influence participants to respond or behave in a certain way.

Plagiarism

Do not adapt material with only minor changes. If facts/ideas are taken elsewhere omit quotes and reference. Acknowledge secondary sources.

The Nuremburg Code

A set of 10 guidelines for ethical treatment of participants, put in place because many Nazis committed medical atrocities prosecuted at Nuremburg War Tribunal in 1947.

Belmont Report principles

1 is respect for persons, individuals should consent; those who can't should be protected. 2 is beneficence which means do no harm, minimize risk, maximize benefits. 3 is justice which is the fairness in selecting participants.

Face validity

Looks like it measures construct.

Concurrent validity

It correlates with a similar measure of the same construct.

Predictive validity

Uses a measure to predict scores on another measure, same construct.

Construct validity

The hardest. When you know your measure truly taps into the construct, or at least manifest behaviors.

Convergent validity

Correlation between different measures of the same construct.

Divergent validity

Establishing a lack of correlation between different/opposing constructs.

Clinical equipoise

Clinicians can only compare treatments when there is honest uncertainty or professional disagreement about which is best.

Parts of a research article

Abstract- summary of the articles findings, Introduction- review of lit./stating hypothesis, Methods- participants, procedures, stimuli, Results- report statistical analysis, Discussion- summarize results, implications for future research, References- bibliographic info.

Essay question

Validity, reliability, scales of measurement.