Sensation
The process of receiving stimulus and energies from the external environment and transforming those energies into neutral energies
Perception
The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information so that it makes sense
Bottom Up
The operations in S and P in which sensory receptors register info about the external environment and send it up to the brain for interpretation Data-driven Focus on incoming data It takes place in real-time
Top Down
The operation in S and P is launched by cognitive processing at the brain's high levels that allow the organism to sense what's happening and to apply that framework info to the world Rely on contextual cues to interpret info Use previous experience and expectations as cues
Reception
The stimulation of the sensory receptor cells by energy (sound, light, heat, etc.) Psychophysics- the study of the psychological effect of the forms of energy
Transduction
Transforming this cell stimulation into neural impulses
Tranmission
Delivering this neural information to the brain to be processed
Absolute Threshold
The minimum level of stimulus intensity needed to detect a stimulus half the time Anything below this threshold is considered subliminal
Signal Detection Theory
whether or not we detect a stimulus, especially amidst background noises It depends not just on the intensity of the stimulus but also on psychological factors
Subliminal Detection
Below our threshold for being able to detect a stimulus consciously
Sensory Adaptation
To help detect more novel stimuli in our environment, our senses will tune out constant stimuli When you switch your phone from one pocket to the other do you feel it? The brain wants to focus on one sensation at a time
Perceptual Set
When what we EXPECT to see influences what we DO see
Female Hormones
estrogen and pro estrogen
Male Hormones
androgens
Scientific Method
Observing some phenomenon Formulating hypotheses and predictions Testing through empirical research Drawing conclusions Evaluating conclusions
Operational Definition
A definition that provides an objective description of how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a particular study
Descriptive Research
Describing the phenomenon What are the basic dimensions of this variable? How often does it occur? Do any trends occur alongside it? Cannot prove what causes a phenomenon Get a general sense about the content Cannot answer the question “why” or “how” things are the way they are Often a preliminary step for under-researched areas
Observational
Systematic is key Know who your target is, when and where you're observing, and in what form you're documenting your observations
Surveys/ Interviews
Asking participants straight up Structured or unstructured
Case Studies
An in-depth look at a single individual Rare cases that we cannot ethically replicate
Correlational Research
Relationships between variables How do two variables change together? Correlation is NOT causation
Experimental Research
Researcher chooses which variables to manipulate Able to determine causation Experimental vs Control Groups Random assignments Within Participant Design Participants serve as their own control group Do not need random assignments Participants experience all conditions of the study
Quasi Experimental Design
Quasi means as if Random assignment is not possible or unethical Study the differences between naturally occurring groups
Internal
changes are due to the manipulation of the IV
External
Reflects real-world issues
Confound
third variables
Longitudinal Research
Measuring the same variable repeatedly over time Can suggest potential causal relationships (not absolute)
Social Role Theory
The theory of gender development that while acknowledging the physical differences between the sexes argues that these differences color social expectations and create social structures that limit opportunities for all genders Gender roles reflect the individuals expectations for how women and men should think, act, and feel Gender stereotypes are general beliefs about what a man or woman should like, do, and behave
Social Learning Theory
1977 Theory of the importance of observing, modeling, and intimating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others We are influenced by the media, culture, rewards and punishments
Gender Schema Theory
1981 Theory of the influence of society’s beliefs about the traits of men and women The pink tax is that many products for women are much more expensive than they are for men
Structuralism
Wundt's school of philosophy, looking at the structure of the mind, introspection
Functionalism
William James' school of philosophy, what are the functions or purposes of the mind and behaviors as we adapt to our environment, natural flow, influenced by Darwin
Biological Approach
Focuses on the body, especially the brain and nervous system
Behavioral Approach
Observable behavioral responses and the environmental determinates, what goes on in your environment that makes you react and behave the way you do?
Psychodynamic
Unconscious thought- battle between your biological drives and whats socially acceptable, Freud believed that relationships built in childhood were the underlying reason people behaved the way they did
Humanistic Approach
a person's positive qualities- what is their mindset on growth and density?, humans have the ability to control their outcomes and are not solely a product of their environment
Cognitive Approach
the mental processes involved in knowing, our attentions, perceptions, mental processes for solving problems
Evolutionary Approach
Some argue that certain processes can be traced back problems and thoughts humans had in early civilization, decision making, levels of aggressiveness, fears, and mating patterns
Sociocultural Approach
in order to understand behavior we must also understand the cultural context in which it occurs, huge leap as it reminded psychologists to look beyond western culture
Wilhelm Wundt
the father of psychology
Retina
the innermost light-sensitive membrane covering the back wall of the eyeball; it is continuous with the optic nerve. Contains rods and cones.
Trichromatic theory
Color perception is produced by 3 types of cone receptors in the retina that are particularly sensitive to different, but overlapping, ranges of wavelengths Red, blue, and green
Rods
see light- dark or light
Opponent-process theory
Cells in the visual system respond to complementary pairs of red-green and blue-yellow colors; a given cell might be excited by red and inhibited by green, whereas another cell might be excited by yellow and inhibited by blue Ewald Hering (1878) Three sets of opponent retinal processes Red-green Yellow-blue White-black Evidence in afterimages
Cones
Color
Gestalt Psychology
How people organize the information coming at us Gestalt (German word for configuration or form) psychology studies how people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns
Figure ground
figures are objects that stand out from their surroundings
Proximity
we naturally group nearby figures together
Continuity
we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones
Closure
we fill gaps to create a complex, whole object
Pinna
outer ear, shaped like a funnel, outside part of the ear that channels sound into the ear
Auditory canal
the canal that connects the outside of the ear and funnels it into the middle ear
Place theory
Each frequency produces vibrations at a particular place on the basilar membrane We can detect the location of a sound with a higher frequency much better than a lower frequency
Frequency theory
Perception of a sound's frequency depends on how often the auditory nerve fires Limitation is that a single neuron can only fire at a maximum rate of 1000 times/second If a frequency requires a greater firing rate, then they must rely on the volley principle