Intro to Biological Anthropology Unit 2

Extant primates and human variation

Age of Exploration

during the Age of Exploration, philosophers and naturalists sought to categorize these new discoveries as Europeans were introduced to more and more of the world

Giordano Bruno

• 1548-1600

• Italian philosopher

• attempted to classify humans based on rudimentary geographic arrangements based on skin color

Jean Bodin

• 1530-1596

• French philosopher

• attempted typology based on skin color, but purely descriptive 

John Ray

• 1627-1705

• classified human populations into categories

  • stature

  • shape

  • food habits

  • skin color

François Bernier

• 1625-1688

• first to develop a comprehensive classification of humans into distinct races 

• used “four quarters” of the earth as the basis for labeling human differences

  • Europeans (W)

  • far Easterners (E)

  • Negroes (S)

  • Lapps (N)

Johann Blumenbach

• 1752-1840

• German physician

• defined five hierarchical racial categories that were based on craniometry

  • Cacucasian

  • Mongolian

  • Malayan

  • Ethiopian

  • American

Pieter Camper

• 1722-1789

• craniometric theoretician

• conceived the “facial angle” measurement as a tool to measure intelligence and justify racial differences

  • a racist biological hierarchy

Arthur de Gobineau

• 1816-1882

• French aristocrat

• known for his book An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races

• proposed three human races: white, black, and yellow

  • described them as “natural barriers” that could not mix

• his ideas were influential to the Nazi Party of Germany

Carl Vogt

• 1817-1895

• polygenist evolutionist

• wrote that the “white” race and “Negro” race were two totally different species

  • claimed that the differences between the two were greater than those between two species of ape

Samuel Morton

• 1799-1851

• American physical anthropologist

• most famous for his collection of human skulls

• claimed he could judge intellectual capacity by measuring cranial capacity

  • large skull = large brain = high intellectual capacity

• wrote a book called Crania Americana

  • used craniometry to argue the hierarchy of racial intelligence

craniometry

the study of the shape and form of human skulls

polytypic species

a biological species that consists of two or more geographically distinct subspecies, or populations, which are differentiated by variations in physical characteristics, behavior, or genetics

subspecies

a subdivision of a species, typically a distinct geographically isolated population with minor, constant differences in characteristics from other populations of the same species

gene flow

the idea of migration and the mixing between population pools

Julian Huxley

• developed the term Clinal Variation

• describes how a species’ traits, such as body shape or color, can vary continuously across a geographical area

cline

the result of two opposing evolutionary drivers: selection and gene flow

C. Loring Brace

• physical anthropologist at the University of Michigan

• played an important role in the reconceptualization of genotypic and phenotypic variation in humans

  • observed that these variations were affected by natural selection, migration, or genetic drift were distributed along geographic gradients called clines

continuous variation

traits that show a gradual spectrum of differences within a population, such as height or skin color, rather than distinct, separate categories

melanin

a compound produced by cells known as melanocytes, determines the skin color, eye color, hair color, etc. in humans

eumelanin

a type of melanin that humans produce, ranges from back to brown in color

pheomelanin

a type of melanin that humans produce, ranges from red to yellow in color

dermis

epidermis

ultraviolet radiation (UVR)

destroys folate, but humans also need UVR for vitamin D

melanocytes

the pigment-producing cells that are central to understanding human skin color variation

melanosomes

pigment-producing organelles that store melanin, which provide skin and hair color

folate

• vitamin B9 that comes from your diet

• regulates gene expression

• maintains levels of aa

• helps in formation of myelin

• important in production of neurotransmitters

neural tube defects

birth defects that occur when the neural tube does not close completely during early pregnancy

vitamin D

• vitamin that humans cannot synthesize ourselves

• obtain from UV rays or your diet

MC1R gene

• Melanocortin-I receptor

• stimulates the production of eumelanin

  • a dark hair and skin phenotype

polymorphic

a phenomenon where a single species exhibits two or more distinct forms within a population, often due to the presence of multiple alleles for a specific gene

SLC24A5

a genetic variation that emerged in the European population that leads to lighter skin tones, which suppresses eumelanin in human bodies

lactose intolerance

• the ancestral and most common condition for milk digestion

• the inability to digest lactose

lactose (galactose + glucose)

• the sugar molecule in milk

• the disaccharide compound

• galactose + glucose

• 2-8% by weight in milk

lactase

a human enzyme where the ability to produce lactase is genetically controlled

lactase persistence

the opposite of lactose intolerance (a derived or abnormal state in humans)

dairying

how the domestication of dairy animals and the consumption of milk led to the genetic trait of lactase persistence in humans

acclimatization

short-term physiological changes, that are reversable

homeostasis

maintaining internal body conditions at acceptable ranges

plasticity

the flexibility of an organism to respond to environmental changes

hypoxia

lack of oxygen

Acute Mountain Sickness

traveling from being accustomed to low altitude, to spending time in high altitude environments, which leads to headaches, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, etc.

respiration

the fundamental biological process of converting nutrients into energy (ATP) and the study of how the human respiratory system and its evolutionary adaptations enable efficient oxygen intake and carbon dioxide removal

hypothermia

when the body’s core temperature drops below 95 degrees farenheit

vasoconstriction

when the body tries to conserve heat

shivering

when the body tries to produce heat

cold-induced vasodilation

hunting response, when there’s a loss of manual dexterity due to cold-induced vasoconstriction

brown adipose tissue

the best insulator and facilitates heat production

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

another way to increase body heat, can be increased by consuming high-calorie fatty foods

CPT1A L479

a variant in Inuit, that underwent one of the strongest known selective sweeps in human history in Inuit populations

hyperthermia

when the body’s temperature is higher than 105 degrees fahrenheit

sweating

a normal response to heat stress, blood is rushed to the skin via vasodilation

vasodilation

a physiological process in which the blood vessels widen, increasing blood flow

heat cramps

muscle spasms caused by loss of water and salts, often follow prolonged sweating brought on by over-exertion in hot weather

heat exhaustion

too little water and not enough sweating that can lead to fainting, weakness, dizziness, fatigue, cool damp skin

heat stroke

can lead to death due to metabolic cessation, falling central venous pressure and depleted plasma volume

Bergmann’s Rule

populations or species of larger size are found in colder environments, whereas populations or species of smaller size are found in warmer environments; the larger the body mass allows the animal to generate more heat

Allen’s Rule

animals living in hotter climates generally have longer extremities than closely related animals living in colder climates 

bioarcheology

the study of ancient and historic human remains in a richly configured context that includes all possible reconstructions of the cultural and environmental variables relevant to the interpretation of these remains

biocultural paradigm

a framework emphasizing the dynamic interactions between biological and cultural factors in shaping human experience and the environment

anthropological osteology

the study of skeletal material that is done with an anthropological approach, studying what it means to be human and how humans have adapted or failed to adapt to different conditions

mortuary archaeology

the study of human remains, grave goods, and burial sites to understand past societies, including their health, social status, migration patterns, etc.

burial excavation process

involves marking the grave site, carefully removing the topsoil, and then digging into the required depth

biological profile

• age-at-death

• nonadult age estimation

  • based on sequence of growth and development

• adult age estimation

  • based on sequence of degeneration

age estimation

analyzing skeletal remains to determine age by examining traits

sex estimation

the process of determining biological sex from skeletal remains

sexual dismorphism

the observable differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species

taphonomy

the branch of paleontology that deals with the process of fossilization

commingled remains

skeletal remains from more than one individual that have been mixed together in a single context

paleopathology

study of the evidence for disease, trauma, and disability in the skeletal board

Neolithic Revolution

the major transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer societies to settled agricultural communities

trauma

analyzes the physical trauma to skeletal remains to determine injury type, timing, and mechanism

infectious disease

a condition caused by the invasion and multiplication of microorganisms in the body, leading to symptoms and diseasea g

metabolic disease

a group of conditions that affects the body’s metabolism

congenital disease

a health condition that is present at birth that is known as a birth defect

neoplastic disease

an abnormal growth of cells that invade and lead to other parts of the body

osteological disease

a condition that damages or weakens the skeleton, making bones more susceptible to fractures

osteological paradox

the challenge in bioarcheology where individuals who die quickly from a disease show no skeletal evidence of illness, while those who live with it develop long-term lesions

NAGPRA

the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990, that requires museums and federal agencies to return Native American human remains and other cultural remains to their descendants

osteobiography

the reconstruction of one’s life story by analyzing their skeletal remains and integrating this biological data with other forms of evidence

ancient DNA

genetic material extracted from ancient biological remains, used to study human evolution, migration, and adaptation 

stable isotope analysis

measures the ratios of stable isotopes in a sample to understand its origins, history, and composition

forensic

relating to the application of scientific knowledge to legal problems

forensic anthropology

any context involving the identification of a recently deceased human that has become fully or partially skeletonized

skeletonized remains

the final stage of decomposition, where all soft tissues of a dead organism have decayed or dried up, leaving only the bones

coroner

an elected or appointed public official

medical examiner

an appointed public official that must be a licensed, board-certified pathologist

forensic taphonomy

science that investigates the changes to biological organisms between the time of death and the time of discovery

postmortem interval

the time since death

Body Farm

a research facility that studies human decomposition to aid in forensic science and criminal investigations

jurisdiction

the study of how law's power and authority are understood, created, and exercised across different cultures and in various legal systems

death certificate

statements of opinion by the certifying physician, not a legal absolute 

cause of death

the reason for the cessation of life, examples are cancer, gunshot trauma, etc.

manner of death

context of death, examples are homicide, suicide, accidental, natural, unknown

expert witness

used for defense or prosecution and requires:

• upholding the principle of scientific neutrality and objectivity

• ensuring the appropriateness of methods used to identify remains

• restricting commentary to the area of expertise

American Academy of Forensic Sciences

consists of criminalistics, engineering sciences, general, jurisprudence, toxicology, psychiatry/behavioral sciences, pathology/biology, biological anthropology, questioned documents, and odontology

American Board of Forensic Anthropology (ABFA)

• incorporated in 1977

• 175+ forensic anthropologists have been certified by the board since then

• between 80-100 active forensic anthropologists

compact/cortical bone

a type of bone tissue that forms the hard outer layer of most bones

spongy/trabecular bone

a porous, less dense type of bone tissue found in the ends of long bones, vertebrae, and the interior of flat bones

osteon

a fundamental structural and functional unit of compact bone tissue