Foundations, Structure, and Principles of American Government

Anarchy

A state without government and laws.

Government

An institution through which leaders exercise power to make and enforce laws affecting the people under its control.

Nation

A sizable group of people who believe themselves united by common bonds of race, language, custom, or religion.

State

A political community that occupies a definite territory and has an organized government with sovereignty.

Sovereignty

The supreme and absolute authority of a state within its boundaries to make laws, determine foreign policy, and govern without approval from any other authority.

Divine Right Theory

The doctrine that a monarch's right to rule comes directly from God alone, making opposition to the monarch both treasonous and sinful.

Social Contract Theory

The theory that individuals surrender state-of-nature freedom to a government in exchange for order and security (Hobbes) or to protect natural rights (Locke).

Unitary System

A system of government that gives all key powers to the central government.

Confederacy

A loose union of independent and sovereign states held together by a weak central power.

Federal System

A system of government that divides and shares powers between the national government and state or provincial governments.

Constitutional Government

A limited government in which a constitution has authority to place clearly recognized limits on the powers of those who govern.

Authoritarian Government

A state in which leadership controls all aspects of citizens' economic, political, and social lives.

Monarchy

A form of government in which a king, queen, or emperor inherits the throne and serves as the head of state.

Direct Democracy

A form of government in which citizens vote directly on government issues, laws, and policies.

Representative Democracy

A system of government where citizens elect representatives and give them the responsibility to make laws and conduct government.

Republic

A representative democracy in which elected officials govern without a monarch in charge.

Capitalism

An economic system emphasizing private ownership of property and factors of production, freedom of choice, competition, and individual incentives.

Laissez-faire

A French term meaning 'to let alone,' describing an economic policy where government does not interfere in the marketplace.

Socialism

An economic system in which the government owns most land, basic industries, and means of production to distribute wealth more equally.

Command Economy

An economic system in which economic decisions regarding production and distribution are made at upper levels of government and handed down.

Bourgeoisie

In Karl Marx's theory, the class of capitalists who owned the means of production, including factories, land, and capital.

Proletariat

In Karl Marx's theory, the industrial working class who produced goods but owned no means of production.

Magna Carta

A 1215 English document signed by King John that established the principle of limited government and protected against unjust punishment and taxation without consent.

English Bill of Rights

A 1689 document setting clear limits on the English monarchy, establishing parliamentary consent for laws/taxes, and guaranteeing fair trial rights.

Natural Rights

Fundamental rights to life, liberty, and property that John Locke argued people possess simply because they are human beings.

Mayflower Compact

A 1620 agreement drafted by Pilgrim leaders establishing the first written plan for self-government in the American colonies.

Connecticut Compromise

An agreement at the Constitutional Convention creating a bicameral legislature with population-based House seats and equal Senate representation per state.

Three-Fifths Compromise

An agreement at the Constitutional Convention counting three-fifths of enslaved persons for both taxation and congressional representation.

Federalists

A group led by Founders such as Alexander Hamilton and James Madison who favored ratification of the 1787 U.S. Constitution and a strong central government.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the 1787 U.S. Constitution who feared a strong central government and demanded a national bill of rights.

Preamble

The introductory statement of the U.S. Constitution that explains why it was written and spells out the basic purposes of government.

Popular Sovereignty

The fundamental principle that government authority is created and sustained by the consent of the people.

Separation of Powers

The division of central government responsibilities among distinct legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent concentration of power.

Checks and Balances

A system in which each branch of government exercises specific restraints and control over the other two branches.

Judicial Review

The power of the courts to interpret the Constitution and declare unconstitutional any law or government action that violates it.

Enumerated Powers

Powers directly stated and numbered in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution as belonging to Congress.

Elastic Clause

Article I, Section 8 provision authorizing Congress to make all laws 'necessary and proper' to execute its enumerated powers.

Incorporation Doctrine

A constitutional interpretation holding that the Fourteenth Amendment's due process clause extends Bill of Rights protections to state and local governments.

Prior Restraint

Government censorship of information before it is published or broadcast.

Eminent Domain

The constitutional power of government to take private property for public use upon payment of fair compensation.

Delegated Powers

Powers specifically granted to the national government by the U.S. Constitution, encompassing both expressed and implied powers.

Reserved Powers

Powers not granted to the federal government nor prohibited to states, strictly reserved for state authority under the Tenth Amendment.

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared and independently exercised by both national and state levels of government.

Supremacy Clause

Article VI provision establishing the U.S. Constitution, federal laws, and national treaties as the 'supreme Law of the Land.'

Enabling Act

A law passed by Congress allowing the people of a territory to draft a state constitution prior to congressional vote on statehood admission.

Mandate

A federal law requiring state or local governments to carry out an activity or provide a service meeting national standards.

Preemption

The federal government's authority to assume responsibility for a state government function through congressional legislation.

Extradition

The legal mechanism requiring a governor to return a fleeing criminal or fugitive to the state where the crime was committed.

Interstate Compact

A formal, written agreement between two or more states approved by Congress to resolve regional issues.

Bicameral Legislature

A legislative body made up of two separate chambers or houses.

Reapportionment

The process of reassigning congressional seats among states based on population counts from each ten-year census.

Redistricting

The process of redrawing congressional district boundaries within a state following reapportionment.

Gerrymandering

The practice of redrawing legislative district boundaries to give one political party an electoral advantage.

Incumbent

An elected official currently holding office who is running for reelection.

Caucus

A closed meeting of political party members to select candidates, choose leaders, or decide legislative policy.

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer and most powerful leader of the House of Representatives, chosen by the majority party.

Quorum

The minimum number of legislative members required to be present to conduct official business.

President Pro Tempore

The Senate officer elected from the majority party to preside over the Senate in the absence of the vice president.

Filibuster

A method of delaying or preventing a Senate vote on a bill through continuous debate or placing holds.

Cloture Resolution

A Senate procedure requiring 60 votes to limit debate and end a filibuster.

Standing Committee

A permanent legislative committee in the House or Senate that continues from one congressional session to the next.

Conference Committee

A temporary joint committee set up to reconcile