Ethics - Natural Law Theory, Categorical Imperative, and Utilitarianism

Natural Law Theory

The theory that God pre-loaded us with the tools (instinct and reason) to know what is Good.

Thomas Aquinas

A 13th-century philosopher who argued God gave us a way to understand his moral rules without needing the Bible.

The Basic Goods

Seven intuitive desires God instilled in us: self-preservation, reproduction, education, seeking God, living in community, avoiding offense, and shunning ignorance.

Instinct & Reason in NLT

Our INSTINCT shows us the basic goods, and our REASON allows us to derive the natural law from them.

Why People Violate Natural Law

Aquinas's two reasons: IGNORANCE (we are mistaken about what is good) and EMOTION (our feelings overpower our reason).

Is-Ought Problem

Hume's critique of NLT: It's a fallacy to assume that because something IS a certain way in nature, it OUGHT to be that way morally.

Immanuel Kant

An 18th-century philosopher who argued morality should be kept separate from religion and is knowable through PURE REASON.

Hypothetical Imperatives

"If-then" commands contingent on your desires; they are about prudence, NOT morality, because they're optional.

Categorical Imperatives

Moral commands you MUST follow, regardless of your desires, because they are derived from pure reason and binding on everyone.

Maxim

A rule or principle of action that stands behind what you are considering doing.

Universalizability Principle

First Formulation: Act only on a maxim that you could will to become a universal law without contradiction. NO EXCEPTIONS FOR YOURSELF.

Formula of Humanity

Second Formulation: Treat humanity, in yourself or others, always as an END and NEVER as a MERE MEANS.

Ends-in-Ourselves

Kant's term for humans; we are RATIONAL and AUTONOMOUS beings with absolute moral worth, not objects to be used.

Using People as a "Mere Means"

To use someone for your own benefit with no thought to their own interests, goals, or values. Lying and deception are key examples.

Utilitarianism

A moral theory that focuses only on the RESULTS or CONSEQUENCES of actions, where good actions produce the most happiness. Intentions are IRRELEVANT.

Jeremy Bentham & John Stuart Mill

Two 18th-century British philosophers who founded modern utilitarianism.

Principle of Utility

The core rule of Utilitarianism: We should act always so as to produce the GREATEST GOOD for the GREATEST NUMBER.

Hedonistic & Other-Regarding

Utilitarianism is hedonistic (good = pleasure) but also other-regarding (pursue pleasure for as many sentient beings as possible, not just yourself).

Benevolent, Disinterested Spectator

The ideal viewpoint for making utilitarian decisions: fair and objective, with good will but no emotional investment.

Act Utilitarianism

The "classical" version: In any given situation, choose the action that produces the greatest good for the greatest number, PERIOD.

Rule Utilitarianism

Live by rules that, IN GENERAL, are likely to lead to the greatest good for the greatest number. Thinks LONG-TERM and on a larger scale.