AP Comp Gov Unit 1 Key Terms & Definitions

Authority

The power and capacity of a government to make binding decisions and command obedience (China's Communist Party holds this over nearly all public life)

Corruption

Dishonest abuse of political power for personal gain, like bribery or patronage (has historically undermined trust in Nigeria)

Head of State

The chief executive who represents and symbolizes the country, usually overseeing foreign policy and the military (the UK's monarch)

Political Institution

A formal, lasting part of government that continues beyond the people running it (the British Parliament)

Rule of Law

The principle that the law applies equally to everyone and is enforced fairly by an independent judiciary (the UK)

Authoritarian Regime

A government that restricts political rights and civil liberties and uses coercion to enforce compliance (China and Iran)

Democratic Regime

A government with real electoral competition, protected civil liberties, rule of law, and checks on executive power (the UK)

Illiberal Democracy

A country that holds elections and has a constitution but doesn't protect civil liberties or rights (Russia and Nigeria)

Political Legitimacy

The perceived right to rule, which can come from elections, tradition, religion, or a leader's charisma (Iran's leadership claims it partly through religious authority)

Single-Member District System

An electoral system where voters pick one representative per district and the top vote-getter wins, also called first-past-the-post (UK Parliament)

Cabinet

Appointed officials who lead government departments and help implement policy (the UK PM selects one from within Parliament)

Democratization

The gradual process of moving from authoritarian rule toward democratic institutions (Nigeria's transition since the 1990s)

Judicial Independence

Courts operating free from political interference so they can apply the law impartially (much stronger in the UK than China)

Political Participation

Formal actions like voting, or informal actions like protesting, that let citizens influence government (protest movements in Mexico)

Social Cleavage

A deep division in society, often based on ethnicity, religion, class, or region, that shapes political conflict (ethnic and religious cleavages in Nigeria)

Civil Liberties

Personal freedoms protected from government interference, like speech and religion (far more limited in China than the UK)

Demographic Change

Shifts in a population's age, migration patterns, or social structure over time (China's aging population)

Parliamentary System

A system where the executive is chosen by and accountable to the legislature (the UK)

Political Socialization

The process of forming political beliefs through family, school, media, or government (state media's role in Russia)

Social Movement

A large, loosely organized group pushing for political or social change (Nigeria's pro-democracy movements)

Civil Rights

Legal protections guaranteeing equal treatment regardless of ethnicity, gender, or religion (weaker in Iran than the UK)

Economic Liberalization

Reducing government control of the economy through privatization, deregulation, and open trade (Mexico's NAFTA-era reforms)

Party System

The number and strength of political parties competing for power (China's dominant single-party system)

Political Stability

A political system's ability to withstand crises without regime change (threatened in Nigeria by corruption and cleavages)

Sovereignty

The recognized authority to govern a territory without outside interference (Russia framing NATO expansion as a threat to it)

Civil Service

Non-partisan government employees who carry out public policy within a bureaucratic hierarchy (the UK's continues regardless of which party governs)

Federalism

A constitutional system dividing power between central and regional governments (Mexico and Nigeria)

Pluralist Interest Group System

A system where many competing interest groups have open access to influence policy (elements exist in the UK)

Presidential System

A system with separation of powers where a directly elected president serves as both head of state and government (Mexico and Nigeria)

State

Political institutions that hold sovereignty over a recognized territory and permanent population (China, despite its large multinational population)

Civil Society

The network of voluntary organizations and NGOs outside government that shape public policy (weak in China)

Globalization

Growing economic and cultural interdependence between countries, often driven by multinational corporations (maquiladoras reshaping Mexico's manufacturing economy)

Political Efficacy

Citizens' belief that they understand and can influence government decisions (typically low in less democratic states like Russia)

Proportional Representation System

An electoral system where parties win legislative seats in proportion to their vote share (UK European Parliament elections)

Supranational Organization

An international body where member states give up some sovereignty for mutual benefit (the European Union)

Consolidated Democracy

A democracy so well established that a return to authoritarianism is very unlikely (the UK)

Government Transparency

The public's ability to see how government decisions are made and hold officials accountable (limited in China and Iran)

Political Culture

The shared attitudes, values, and beliefs a society holds about politics (Russia's emphasizes nationalism and deference to authority; China's reflects Confucian collectivism)

Regime

The enduring political institutions and culture of a governing system, distinct from the specific people in office (Nigeria has had multiple governments under its current regime)

Unitary System

A system where all sovereignty rests with the central government, which may devolve some power to regions (the UK)

Corporatist Interest Group System

A system where the government gives a small number of interest groups exclusive access to policymaking (historically part of Mexico's ties to labor unions)

Head of Government

The executive who runs day-to-day government operations, including the cabinet and bureaucracy (the UK Prime Minister)

Political Ideology

A system of beliefs about the proper role and purpose of government (Iran's is shaped heavily by Islamist principles)

Comparative Politics

The study of political systems through analyzing similarities and differences between countries

Dependent Variable

The variable being explained, which is influenced by other variables

Independent Variable

The variable being examined as a possible cause of change in the dependent variable

Correlation

A relationship between two variables without evidence that one causes the other

Causality

A relationship where a change in one variable produces a change in another

Most-Similar Approach

Comparing similar cases to narrow down which independent variable causes a difference

Most-Different Approach

Comparing different cases that share a similar outcome to find the common explanatory factor

Normative Statement

A subjective value statement about how things should be

Empirical Statement

An objective, factual statement about how things are

Quantitative Analysis

Statistical analysis of a large number of cases

Qualitative Analysis

In-depth subjective analysis of a small number of cases

GDP Per Capita

A country's economic output divided by its population

Gini Coefficient

A measure comparing the distribution of income within a country

Human Development Index

A measure combining longevity, knowledge, and income to assess wellbeing

Nation

A people bound by common culture, language, ethnicity, history, or religion, often with political aspirations

Ethnic Identity

A shared sense of heritage that may exist within or across national identities

Nationalism

Dedication to one's own national interests above others

Nation-State

A territory where the state and national identity coincide

Multinational/Ethnic State

A state containing many different peoples, which can challenge national unity (Nigeria and Russia both face this)

Failed State

A government that has lost control over its territory or the ability to perform basic functions

Collective Identity

A shared political identity based on ethnicity, class, religion, or similar traits

Coinciding/Polarizing Cleavages

Overlapping social divisions that reinforce each other and increase the risk of conflict

Cross-Cutting Cleavages

Social divisions spread across groups in a way that reduces overall tension

Liberalism

Support for free markets, pluralism, personal freedoms, free elections, limited government, and rule of law

Political Economy

The interconnection between government policy and the economy, covering fiscal, monetary, and trade policy

Libertarianism/Individualism

A belief in protecting civil liberties and limiting government restriction on individuals

Authoritarianism

The belief that the central government should restrict citizens' lives in the name of order and security

Communism

A system where the government controls all production through a single party to create equality

Fascism

An extreme authoritarian nationalist ideology that persecutes minorities and political opposition

Socialism

A belief in government intervention to reduce economic inequality through welfare and regulation

Command Economy

An economic system where the government plans and controls economic activity

Neoliberalism

A belief in limited government intervention in the economy, favoring privatization and lower taxes

Globalism

A belief in prioritizing the common good of humanity over national borders and sovereignty

Conservatism vs Progressivism

A spectrum between preserving existing social norms and pushing to change them

Populism

A political approach that appeals to the interests of ordinary people against elites

Regime vs Government

A regime is the enduring political system and its rules, while the government is the specific group of people currently in power within it (Nigeria's regime has outlasted several individual governments)

Substantive Democracy

A democracy meeting real democratic conditions, split into liberal (all six criteria) and citizen (strong participation) types (the UK and Mexico)

Democratic Consolidation

The process by which a democracy matures and becomes unlikely to revert to authoritarianism

Non-Democracy

A regime meeting none of the conditions of democracy, relying on coercion to govern (China and Iran)

Semi-Presidential System

A system where the president is directly elected and the PM is appointed by the president and confirmed by the legislature (Russia)

Impeachment

The removal process in presidential systems, where the lower house accuses and the upper house tries the executive

Vote of No Confidence

The removal process in parliamentary systems, where the legislature votes out the PM and cabinet

Unicameral Legislature

A legislature with a single chamber (China and Iran)

Bicameral Legislature

A legislature with two chambers

Upper House

The typically less democratic chamber of a bicameral legislature, often representing regions in federal systems

Lower House

The chamber that represents the people and usually holds primary lawmaking power

Common Law

A legal system based on precedent and tradition (the UK)

Civil/Code Law

A legal system based on explicitly written statutes

Sharia Law

A legal system based on Islamic principles from the Qur'an and Hadith (Iran)

Rule by Law

The use of law as a tool to enforce the will of those in power, rather than to constrain them

Judicial Review

The power of courts to decide whether laws or government actions are constitutional

Linkage Institutions

Structures like parties, media, and interest groups that connect citizens to their government

Run-Off Election

A second election between the top two candidates when no one wins a majority

Catch-All Party

A party that tries to appeal broadly across the political spectrum rather than to one narrow group

Coalition

An alliance between parties formed to achieve a legislative majority

Non-Competitive Practices

Tactics like weakening electoral commissions or restricting parties that undermine fair elections

Multinational Corporation

A company with operations, supply chains, and markets that cross state borders