Comprehensive Gender Development, Moral Reasoning, and Family Dynamics in Psychology

What is the definition of gender according to the notes?

Socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that society considers appropriate for boys and men or girls and women.

How do boys typically express aggression compared to girls?

Boys are more physically aggressive than girls, especially when provoked.

What is the significance of role models in learning masculine gender roles?

Boys have a more difficult time learning masculine gender roles due to less accessible male models and inconsistent messages.

What changes occur in gender roles during adolescence?

During puberty, individuals come to terms with new definitions of gender roles, leading to increased pressure to conform to traditional masculine and feminine roles.

What is the gender-intensification hypothesis?

It suggests that psychological and behavioral differences between genders increase in early adolescence.

What are the implications of extreme gender-typed behaviors in boys and girls?

Extreme gender-typed behaviors are linked to low school engagement and attachment.

How does Social Role Theory explain gender differences?

It posits that psychological gender differences result from contrasting roles of women and men in society.

What is the role of Social Cognitive theory in gender development?

It states that gender development occurs through observation, imitation, and the rewards and punishments children experience.

What is Gender Typing?

The process through which individuals acquire and internalize expectations about behavior based on gender.

What are Gender Schemas?

Categorizations in a culture regarding how males and females should behave.

How do girls' and boys' rigidity in gender roles compare?

Girls are generally less rigid than boys in adhering to gender roles.

What are the observed differences in school achievement between genders?

Girls tend to have more negative attitudes towards math, but score higher in reading and writing, earn better grades, and complete high school at a higher rate.

What does Gender Identity involve?

It involves a sense of one's own gender, including knowledge, understanding, and acceptance of being a boy/man, girl/woman, or any other gender.

What is the significance of sex assigned at birth in gender development?

It influences the expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female in society.

What are common behaviors associated with children's sexual play?

Children often engage in sex play motivated by curiosity, which may include exhibiting or inspecting genitals.

What is the process of developing Sexual Identity during adolescence?

It is a lengthy and multifaceted process involving managing sexual feelings, developing intimacy, and regulating sexual behavior.

What factors influence sexual behavior in emerging adulthood?

Many emerging adults are sexually active and unmarried, with casual sex and 'friends with benefits' arrangements being more common.

What changes occur in sexual activity during middle adulthood?

Sexual activity happens less frequently due to career interests, family matters, and decreased energy levels.

What physiological changes occur in sexual performance during late adulthood?

Aging induces changes in sexual performance, with more significant effects for men than women.

What is Sexual Orientation?

It refers to a person's sexual and emotional attraction to another person, influenced by a combination of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, and environmental factors.

What is the impact of societal norms on sexual behavior?

Social norms influence perceptions of peers' sexual activity and the use of protection.

What is Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development?

It involves changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong, structured in three levels.

What is an example of a moral dilemma used in Kohlberg's theory?

The 'Heinz Dilemma,' where a husband steals a drug to save his wife from cancer.

What are the consequences of not providing accurate information about sex to children?

Children may come to their own conclusions about sex and reproduction, leading to misconceptions.

What is the average age of marriage for males and females according to the notes?

30.1 years for males and 28.2 years for females.

What are the concerns regarding sexting among adolescents?

Sexting is a rising concern, with many adolescents unprepared to handle sexual experiences.

What are the three levels of moral development according to Kohlberg?

Preconventional, Conventional, and Postconventional.

What characterizes the Preconventional level of moral development?

Moral reasoning is based on external rewards and punishments, focusing on satisfying one's own needs.

How does the Conventional level of moral development differ from Preconventional?

Individuals apply standards set by others, conforming to expectations from parents or society.

What defines the Postconventional level of moral development?

Individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore options, and decide on a personal moral code based on individual rights and societal consensus.

What role do peer interactions play in moral development?

They are critical for social stimulation and challenge children to change their moral reasoning.

What is a criticism of Kohlberg's theory of moral development?

It focuses too much on moral reasoning rather than moral behavior and emphasizes male norms over female perspectives.

What is Gilligan's Care Perspective in relation to moral reasoning?

It emphasizes connectedness, interpersonal communication, and concern for others, contrasting with Kohlberg's Justice Perspective.

What is the distinction between moral competence and moral performance in Social Cognitive Theory?

Moral competence refers to what individuals know and their skills, while moral performance refers to actual behavior influenced by motivation and incentives.

What does Turiel's Social Domain Theory propose?

It distinguishes between different domains of social knowledge, including moral, social conventional, and personal domains.

What is the Moral Domain concerned with?

It focuses on people's rights and welfare, understood through social interactions.

What are Social Conventions in the context of social reasoning?

They involve conventional rules established by social consensus and experiences in various social settings.

What is the significance of Reciprocity in prosocial behavior?

It is the obligation to return a favor, motivating important prosocial behaviors like sharing.

Define Altruism.

An unselfish interest and voluntary effort in helping another person.

How is Religion defined in the context of psychological needs?

An organized set of beliefs and practices that connect individuals to a sacred or transcendent other.

What is the relationship between religious involvement and well-being among older adults?

Religious involvement is linked with life satisfaction and well-being.

What does Broffenbrenner's Ecological Theory emphasize?

Individuals are both products and producers of their environment.

What is the Microsystem in Broffenbrenner's Ecological Theory?

The immediate environment in which an individual lives, including family, school, and peers.

What is the Mesosystem?

The connections between different Microsystems, such as family processes and peer relations.

What influences are included in the Exosystem?

Influences from settings the individual does not directly experience, like parents' workplaces and mass media.

What does the Macrosystem represent?

The broader culture in which an individual lives, including dominant beliefs and ideologies.

What is the Chronosystem in ecological theory?

The sociohistorical circumstances that change over time.

What is dyadic synchrony?

Interactions characterized by mutual attention and affective matching between parent and child.

What are Gottman's principles for a successful marriage?

Turning towards each other, nurturing fondness and admiration, letting partners influence each other, and creating shared meaning.

What are Baumrind's four parenting styles?

Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive/Indulgent, and Uninvolved/Neglectful.

What characterizes Authoritative parenting?

High expectations combined with affection and reasoning, linked to competence in children.

What are the effects of Authoritarian parenting on children?

Children may become anxious, unhappy, and have low self-esteem due to punitive and controlling behavior.

What are the consequences of Permissive/Indulgent parenting?

Children may become impulsive, disobedient, and achieve poorer academic results.

What defines Uninvolved/Neglectful parenting?

Low acceptance and involvement, leading to emotional detachment from children.

How does divorce affect children in the short term?

It can lead to instability, conflict, and a drop in income, affecting parental stress and organization.

What factors influence long-term adjustment after divorce?

Age, temperament, and the father's involvement can affect children's adjustment.

What is the impact of favoritism among siblings during adolescence?

It can lead to lower self-esteem and sadness in less-favored siblings.

What are the benefits of being an only child?

Higher self-esteem, achievement motivation, and closer relationships with parents.