Module 1 - Introduction to the Science of Psychology

Psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes. It is grounded in scientific research

Systematic observation

the core of science. Defined as the careful observation of the natural world with the aim of better understanding it

Empirical methods

are approaches to inquiry that are tied to actual measurement and observation

Francis Galton

cousin of Charles Darwin, he invented the self-report questionnaire which people used to offer their own expressed judgements and opinions on various matters

Social-desirability effect

human’s tendency to answer in ways that are “socially desirable”

Peer Report Measure

asking close friends and family of person/thing being studied about the topic of targeted individuals

Psychologist Alphonse Chapanis (and other researchers)

redesigned the cockpit controls of aircraft to make them less confusing and easier to respond to

Elizabeth Loftus

conducted research demonstrating the limits and unreliability of eyewitness testimony and memory

Ethics

professional guidelines that provide researchers with a template for making decisions that protect the research participants from potential harm

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

IRB approves, monitors, and reviews research with human subjects.

Code of Ethics

provides extensive guidelines for how human participants should be treated in psychological research

Naturalistic Observation

the process of watching a phenomenon without interfering with what you are observing

Survey Research

provides broad, general information about behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, opinions, interests, and/or intentions of a large group of people

Random Selection

The method to draw a representative sample from the target population

Validity

the extent to which the survey (or research) measures what it claims to measure

Reliability

the extent to which the results of the survey or research can be repeated

Operational Definition

clearly specify or “operationalize” the definition and measurement of a concept.

Independent Variable

is the variable under the experimenter’s control, or the variable that is intentionally manipulated because one group receives the independent variable (the experimental group) and the other group does not receive the independent variable (the control group)

Confounding Variables

any variable in addition to or instead of the independent variable that affects the measurement of the dependent variable.

Placebo Effect

defined as changes in behavior or perception from a person knowing he or she is receiving special treatment or something new.

Participant Demand

occurs when participants try to behave in a way they think the experimenter wants them to behave

Double Bind Procedure

neither the participant nor the experimenter knows whether the participant is in the experimental or control group

Random Assignment

means that a random procedure is employed so each subject in the representative sample has an equal opportunity of being selected into the experimental or control groups

Quasi-experimental design

method that is used when it is unethical for the researcher to “give” or “expose” the subjects to the independent variable

The Correlation Coefficient (abbreviated as r)

Is a descriptive statistic that provides information about three aspects of the relationship between the two variables

Structuralism

Uses the method of introspection to identify the basic elements or “structures” of psychological experience

Functionalism

Goal was to understand why animals and humans have developed the particular psychological aspects they currently possess

Evolutionary Functionalism

Attempts to understand why animals and humans have developed the particular psychological aspects they currently possess

Psychodynamic

Focuses on the role of our unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories and our early childhood experiences in determining behavior

Behaviorism

Based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind; therefore, psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself

Humanism

Based on the premise that people work toward personal betterment

Cognitive

The study of mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgement

Cross-Cultural

The study of how the cultures in which people live influence thinking and behavior

René Descartes

European philosopher during the Renaissance, he considered the issue of free will

Dualism

states the mind is fundamentally different from the mechanical body

Wilhelm Wundt

German psychologist who developed a psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany

William James

American psychologist who founded a psychology laboratory at Harvard University

Introspection

involves asking research participants to describe exactly what they experience as they work on mental tasks

Edward Bradford Titchener

student of Wundt, he came to the United States in the late 1800s and founded a laboratory at Cornell University

Fitness

Key component of evolutionary psychology. Refers to the extent to which having a given characteristic helps the individual organism survive and reproduce at a higher rate than do other members of the species who do not have the characteristic

Biological Perspectives

Studies the ways in which brain structures, as well as brain processes, including hormones, neurotransmitters, and genetics contribute to psychological functioning

Sigmund Freud

believed that many of our thoughts and emotions are unconscious

John B. Watson

was influenced in large part by the work of the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered that dogs would salivate at the sound of a tone that had previously been associated with the presentation of food. Watson began to use these ideas to explain how events that people and other organisms experienced in their environment (stimuli) could produce specific behaviors.

Burrhus Frederick (B.F.) Skinner

he used the principles of behaviorism and brought them to the attention of the public

Abraham Maslow

applied humanistic principles to a theory of motivation and a hierarchy of needs and drives

Carl Rogers

applied humanistic principles to a theory of personality and therapeutic approach

Client-centered Therapy

emphasizes the core conditions of unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence.

Unconditional Positive Regard

refers to valuing others without placing conditions on their worth, and treating clients with genuine respect

Empathy

refers to developing an understanding of a client from his or her worldview and perspective, instead of imposing one’s own

Congruence

means genuinely and honestly communicating with the client from the base of empathy

Herman Ebbinghaus

studied the ability of people to remember lists of words under different conditions

Sir Frederic Bartlett

studied the cognitive and social processes of remembering

Jean Piaget

Swiss psychologist who created the cognitive-developmental stage model

Norms

include customs, traditions, standards, and rules, as well as the general values of the group