History of the Roman Empire Midterm Terms

Gens

Latin: gens, gentis N (3rd) F
tribe, clan;

A Roman family or clan, a fundamental building block of Roman society. Someone's gens was reflected in their Nomen Gentilicium. The aristocratic gentes dominated the early Roman Republic. Examples: Julii, Junii, and the Claudii.

Tribune of the Plebs

An official elected by the plebeians to protect their interests. Had to a Plebeian. They could prevent any action of the Senate or Consuls (intercessio), accept appeals from citizens (provocatio), and were protected from any harm (sacrosanctitas).

Imperium

Latin: imperium, imperi(i) N (2nd) N
command; authority

A form of military or judicial authority held by chief magistrates and private citizens.

Triumph

a ritual procession that was the highest honour bestowed upon a victorious general in the ancient Roman Republic The final destination was the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, where the general would lead the dedications and sacrifices to Jupiter.

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus

Roman general who defeated Hannibal, a Carthaginian general, during the Second Punic War (218-201). His greatest victory over Hannibal was the Battle of Zama (202 BCE), which earned him the title "Africanus". The single most celebrated Roman of the Republican era.

Senatus Consultum

The Senatus Consultum Ultimum (SCU), "Final Decree of the Senate", is a resolution of the Senate which urged magistrates, typically consuls, to take whatever actions necessary to defend the state. First used against Gaius Gracchus in 121 BCE.

Scipio Aemilianus

The adoptive grandson of Scipio Africanus who would rise to prominence fighting in Rome's wars in the Greek world in the 160s BCE. His claim to fame was when he successfully besieged and conquered Carthage in 146 BCE, annihilating it. Awarded with a triumph and celebrated as a hero.

The Gracchi Brothers

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were Tribunes of the Plebs who tried to pass laws to reform land distribution and to protect Plebeian rights. After passing his Agragrian Law, Tiberius was murdered by a group of aristocrats in 133 BCE. His fiery brother, Gaius, passed a slew of measures through the assemblies to support the poor and reform the special corruption courts. Gaius lost his third election for tribune, and was eventually killed by soldiers in 121 BCE. The Gracchi brothers became icons. Their actions led to the emergence of ideological factions, the abandonment of old traditions, and (importantly) the introduction of political violence.

Optimates and Populares

Two opposing political factions in the Roman Republic that emerged following the Gracchi brothers. The optimates were the conservative faction that represented the interests of the aristocracy and the Senate. They sought to preserve the "old order" and were opposed to populist reforms, like those of the Gracchi. Sulla is an example of an optimate.

The populares were populists who sought to represent the poor, the dispossessed, and "ordinary" Romans against the old elite. They pushed for reforms that supported the Plebs, like land redistribution and grain subsidies. Many especially became Tribunes, an office remade in their image. They saw the Gracchi as martyrs. Besides the Gracchi, Julius Caesar is a famous example.

Lucius Corenlius Sulla

A Roman general and statesman from the gens Cornelii. Initially a protege of Marius, Sulla first came to prominence during the Social War. He marched on Rome with his army (the first time ever) and confirmed himself as the commander in charge of the war against Mithridates. Sulla emerged victorious in the civil war against Marius in 82 BCE, and had himself declared dictator. He rewrote the Roman constitution and issued the proscriptions. He instituted a fixed political career path (cursus honorum), dramatically expanded the Senate, stripped the power of the Tribunes of the Plebs, and made Senators the jurors at corruption courts again. His victory was a triumph for the optimates. He took the name "Sulla Felix", "Fortunate Sulla", for his victories.

Publius Clodius Pulcher

Publius Clodius Pulcher was a controversial Roman politician known for the Bona Dea scandal (62 BCE), in which he infiltrated a women-only religious ceremony at Caesar’s house, leading to rumors of an affair with Caesar’s wife. As Tribune of the Plebs (58 BCE), he passed popular laws targeting Cicero, expanded the grain dole, and used mob violence to control Roman politics before being killed in a gang clash in 52 BCE.

First Triumvirate

An unofficial political alliance between Julius Caesar, Pompey Magnus, and Licinius Crassus formed due to their mutual need to overcome Senatorial opposition to their proposals. Caesar provided the popular support, Pompey the military clout, and Crassus the money. Together, they dominated Roman public life from 60 - 53 BCE. They all agreed on candidates for electoral office each year. No major laws were passed without their support. Caesar was able to obtain the governorship of Gaul, Pompey was given land to settle his soldiers, and Crassus was given the governorhsip of Syria.

Publicani

Private Roman tax collectors, usually under the Equitorial class, who tax farmed the provinces and took up tax-collection contracts. They were also involved in constructing public works, supplying soldiers with arms, and managing public property.

Julia

The daughter of Julius Caesar. Caesar gave her to Pompey in 59 BCE in order to create a closer bond with him as part of the First Triumvirate. Julia would become very close to Pompey. She died in 54 BCE, after which the alliance between Caesar and Pompey began to falter.

Vercingetorix

Vercingetorix was a Gallic chieftain of the Arverni tribe who united the Gauls against Caesar. After initial victories, he was defeated at Alesia (52 BCE), imprisoned for six years, and later executed after Caesar’s triumph.

Mark Antony

• Caesar’s lieutenant during the Gallic Wars and Civil War

• Enemy of the Senate after Caesar’s assassination (44 BCE)

• Joined the Second Triumvirate (43 BCE) with Octavian and Lepidus

• Defeated Caesar’s assassins at Philippi (42 BCE)

• Ruled the eastern provinces, allied with Cleopatra VII (he had 3 children with her even though he was married to Octavians sister)

• Defeated at Actium (31 BCE) by Octavian (he had senate declare war on Cleopatra)

• Committed suicide (with cleo) (30 BCE) after Octavian’s victory

Rubicon

A shallow river in northeastern Italy, which marked the historic border with Cisalpine Gaul. Caesar famously crossed it in 49 BCE with the 13th Legion, breaking the law limiting his imperium, and making armed conflict inevitable.

Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa

• Roman general and statesman, closest ally of Octavian (later Augustus).

• Led Octavian’s fleet to victory at the Battle of Actium (31 BCE).

• Key architect of Augustus' rule, aiding in political and military consolidation.

• Commissioned the Pantheon in Rome.

• Forced to divorce his wife and marry Augustus' daughter, Julia, to strengthen the imperial family.

Sextus Pompeius

Sextus Pompeius was the younger son of Pompey Magnus who fought against Caesar at Munda (45 BCE) and later opposed the Second Triumvirate during the Sicilian War (42–36 BCE). After blockading Italy, he was defeated by Agrippa at Mylae and Naulochus (36 BCE), fled to Asia Minor, and was killed by Antony’s men, marking the end of Republican resistance.

Octavia

The sister of Octavian. She was initially the wife of Gaius Claudius Marcellus, until he died in 40 BCE. The same year, she was married to Antony by Octavian, in order to solidify their fragile alliance. However, given Antony's close relationship with Cleopatra, he divorced Octavia in 33 BCE. Octavian greatly honored her, giving her sacrosanctitas and lifting the obligation for tutela. She was one of the first women to have statues and portraits made of her in public. After the death of her son Marcellus, she retreated from public life, dying of natural causes in 11 BCE. Augustus had her deified.

Procuratores

Officials who were in charge of the financial affairs of a province, or who served as imperial governors. Augustus hired a large number of Equestrian procuratores to represent him within his territories and to administer them in his name.

Tiberius

• Second emperor of Rome (14–37 AD), adopted by Augustus in 4 AD

• Son of Livia, reluctant to rule but acted as emperor

• Antisocial and paranoid, obsessed with treason trials (maiestas)

• Doubled the Praetorian Guard (4,500 to 9,000) for protection

• Struggled with the Senate, lacked public support

• Sejanus, his Praetorian Prefect, gained significant power

• No major public works, games, or military campaigns

• Retreated to Capri (26 AD), ruled remotely until his death

Auctoritas

Literally, "authority". Referred to the personal prestige someone had, and thus his standing, influence, and ability to rally people around his will. Augustus, for example, did not rule with official power, but instead with auctoritas. Whenever Augustus gave his opinion on something, people listened.

Tribunicia Potestas

"Tribunician power"

(1) sacrosanctitas - a captial offence to lay a hand on a plebeian tribune

(2) intercessio - a plebeian tribune can intervene on behalf of plebeians and veto the actions of magistrates

(3) provocatio - a plebeian can appeal to a tribune to reassess a magistrate's action. Plebeian tribunes could also call assemblies of the plebs.

The Senate gave Augustus tribunicia potestas every year, without the official title of tribune. This was perhaps the most important power he gained, and sealed his effective control over the checks and balances of the Roman government.

Praetorian Guards

• Imperial guard tasked with protecting the emperor

• Founded by Augustus, led by Equestrian praetorian prefects

• Escorted high-ranking officials and played a key role in imperial politics

• Could make or break emperors—killed Caligula, installed Claudius, and executed Galba for Otho

• Emperors had to keep their favor to maintain power

Maiestas

• "treason," a capital offense in Rome

• Expanded under Tiberius to include insulting or undermining the emperor

• Encouraged informants with financial rewards (similar to proscriptions)

• Accusers often received the condemned’s estate as a reward

Sejanus

A praetorian prefect who became very close to Tiberius. In many ways, Sejanus came to control Roman politics due to his direct access to Tiberius. Because of his control, the treason trials increased, and they were weaponized to get rid of political opposition (including Tiberius' son, Drusus). When Tiberius moved to Capri, Sejanus basically had full control over Roman politics and affairs. He himself was suddenly accused of treason in 31 AD and summarily executed.

Freedmen

Liberti. Slaves freed by the correct process in full compliance with the norms of Roman Law. They were full Roman citizens who possessed Libertas, Civilitas, and the right to Familia. Liberti still owed certain legal obligations to their former master, now called their patron. They were excluded from political office.

Caliga

Heavy-soled, hobnailed, sandal-boots worn by soldiers. Gaius was nicknamed "Caligula" by the soldiers of Germanicus, his father. Caligula means "little boot".

Germanicus

• Germanicus was the adopted son of Tiberius and a celebrated Roman general.

• Led successful campaigns against Arminius in Germania, winning key battles at Idistaviso and the Angrivarian Wall.

• Awarded a triumph for his victories.

• Later sent east to reorganize the Asian provinces.

• His popularity overshadowed Tiberius, straining their relationship.

• Died under mysterious circumstances during a feud with Piso.

Agrippina

• Agrippina was the daughter of Agrippa, wife of Germanicus, and daughter-in-law of Tiberius.

• She traveled with Germanicus on his campaigns, bringing her son Gaius (Caligula).

• After Germanicus' suspicious death, she accused Tiberius of having him killed to secure Drusus the Younger as heir.

• Died of forced starvation on Pandateria, reportedly sanctioned by Tiberius.

First Jewish Revolt

• First Jewish Revolt (66-74 CE) was the first major Jewish rebellion against Rome, centered in Judaea.

• Sparked by religious tensions, heavy taxation, and resentment toward Roman-appointed rulers like Gessius Florus.

• Nero sent Vespasian to suppress the revolt; by 68 CE, most of Judaea was subdued except Jerusalem.

• After Nero’s death, Titus besieged Jerusalem (70 CE) and destroyed the Second Temple, commemorated on Tisha B’Av.

• Rome banned Jewish proselytizing, redirected temple dues to Rome, but allowed exemption from the imperial cult.

• Vespasian's triumph in Rome lasted 30 days; many Jews were enslaved or exiled, contributing to the Jewish diaspora.

Galba

• Galba was the first emperor of the Year of the Four Emperors, ruling for 7 months.

• As governor of Hispania, he backed Vindex’s rebellion against Nero.

• After Nero’s suicide, the Senate and Praetorians declared Galba emperor.

• He refused to pay the Praetorians and massacred 7,000 Nero supporters, losing public favor.

• Named Piso as successor, angering Otho, who bribed the Praetorians to kill Galba and Piso.

Debasement of coinage

• Debasement of coinage was the process of reducing the precious metal content in coins while maintaining their face value.

• Common in the Roman Empire, especially during times of economic crisis or war.

• Emperors reduced silver and gold content, replacing it with cheaper metals like copper.

• Led to inflation, loss of trust in currency, and economic instability.

• Significant under emperors like Nero and later in the 3rd-century crisis.

Decuriones

• Decuriones were local councillors who governed Roman colonies and municipalities.

• Mostly ex-magistrates, they served for life, with membership reviewed every five years.

• Required to meet wealth, age, free birth, and reputation qualifications.

• Managed tax collection and other public duties in their communities.

• Vespasian granted them full Roman citizenship in return for their service.

Syncretism

• Syncretism was the Roman practice of incorporating foreign gods into their pantheon.

• Romans followed inclusive polytheism, believing all gods were real.

• Adopted Greek Olympian gods and participated in foreign cults like Isis worship.

• Jews resisted syncretism, as their monotheism rejected polytheistic practices.

Imperial cult

• Imperial cult venerated emperors and their families as divine figures.

• Had Hellenistic influences, including the cult of Alexander the Great.

• Augustus was worshipped in the East and deified after death, though Tiberius rejected it.

• Vespasian expanded and standardized the cult, promoting Flavian rule as divinely sanctioned.

• Jews and Christians opposed the cult due to its religious implications.

Lex de imperio Vespasiani

• a law defining the powers and rights of the emperor.

• First text resembling a constitution for the principate.

• Aimed to formalize imperial authority and prevent bad rulers like Nero or Gaius.

• Granted the emperor the power to appoint officials, which Vespasian and successors used extensively.

Titus

• Titus, son and successor of Vespasian, led the siege of Jerusalem (70 AD) and destroyed the Second Temple.

• Had a short reign (79-81 AD) but aimed to be a dutiful and moral emperor like his father.

• Held extensive military and political experience, serving as general, praetor, prefect, censor, and consul (7 times).

• Popular for refusing treason trials and banishing accusers.

• Faced two major catastrophes during his reign.

• Died in 81 AD, allegedly of a fever.

Colosseum

Using the money and wealth plundered from Judaea, Vespasian began building the Temple of Peace as well as the new Flavian Amphitheater in 72 AD. The amphitheater was later colloquially known as the Colosseum. It was called that because it was built right next to a colossal statue of Nero. The completed structure was dedicated in 80 AD by Titus, Vespasian's son and successor.

The Eruption of Mount Vesuvius

in 79 AD, during the reign of Titus, Mount Vesuvius erupted and destroyed several towns and areas around it. The ash and rock was able to preserve Pompeii, a town which has served as an invaluable showcase of everyday Roman life.

Edward Gibbon

Wrote the Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire

Argued the best time to live in Rome was the Emperors by Adoption/5 Good Emperors

Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, Marcus Aurelius/Lucius Verus

alimenta

• Alimenta was a welfare program in the Roman Empire that provided food and financial support to poor children, especially in Italy.

• Introduced by Emperor Trajan, it aimed to boost population growth and support rural farming communities.

aurum coronarium

• Aurum Coronarium was a "crown tax," a gold tribute originally given voluntarily to emperors for victories or special events but later became mandatory.

• It symbolized loyalty to the emperor but also became a financial burden on Roman provinces.

Bar Kokhba

• Bar Kokhba was the leader of the Jewish revolt against Rome (132–135 AD), known as the Bar Kokhba Revolt, which aimed to restore Jewish independence but was brutally crushed by Emperor Hadrian.

• The revolt led to the destruction of Judean society, mass deaths, and the renaming of Judea to "Syria Palaestina", marking a severe Roman crackdown on Jewish identity and autonomy.

Roman Repbulic

509 BC - 27 BC

Roman Empire

27 BC 476 AD