ap psych unit 3 - cognition

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

prospective memory

remembering to do something at a different time (remembering later = missing window of opportunity)

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system; taking it in (extracting meaning)

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time (retaining information)

retrieval

process of getting information out of memory storage

sensory memory

processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; fleeting, even temporary before commitment

parallel processing

processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly

maintenance rehearsal

straight repeating of information with the intent to memorize it

elaborative rehearsal

useful in transfer of information into long-term memory

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system including knowledge, skills, experiences

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one consciously knows

episodic memory

involves highly personal details about you

semantic memory

involves worldly facts (nothing to do with you personally)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort - later, after much practice, a task may become automatic

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

procedural memory

involved in the performance of different actions and skills; memory of how to do certain things

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information; happens w/o our awareness

iconic memory

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units - often occurs automatically; best when we organize it into personally meaningful arrangements

mnemonics

memory aids using vivid imagery and organizational devices - acronyms

method of Loci

imagined physical locations to associate with information; better at remembering places

hierarchies

composed of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts & facts; categories for more efficient recall

distributed practice

more efficient retention of information; produces better long-term recall

spacing effect

(distributed practice method) better long-term retention than mass study (cramming) when one’s studying is distributed over a long period of time

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving information rather than just rereading it

self-reference effect

tendency for people to encode information differently depending on whether they themselves are implicated/related to the information

structural (shallow) processing

first level of processing; encoding on a basic lever based on the visual aspects (appearance & structure)

phonemic (intermediate) processing

second level of processing; adds sound to the encoding process

semantic (deep) processing

incorporates meaning into each piece of information; tends to yield the best retention

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

sleep’s role in memory

supports memory consolidation; the period of time where the hippocampus processes memories for storage

cerebellum

key role in forming and storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning; if damaged, one cannot develop certain conditioned reflexes

basal ganglia

deep brain structures in motor movement and facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills; receives input from cortex

infantile amnesia

one-year-olds cannot remember childhood because their hippocampi were damaged

amygdala

two emotion-processing clusters in the limbic system that initiate memory formation in frontal lobes and basal ganglia; boosts brain activity

flashbulb memory

a clear/vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment/event

long-term potentiation

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be the neural basis for learning and memory

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must receive information learned earlier (eg. a fill-in-the-blank question)

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned (eg. multiple-choice question)

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again (eg. studying for a final exam is easier because some material has been learned previously)

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory/activation

context-dependent

when the recall is stronger when a subject is present in the same environment where the original memory was formed

mood-congruent

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good/bad mood

state-dependent

when the recall is stronger when a subject is present in the same state where the original memory formed

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first in a list (primacy effect)

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

a cognitive bias that occurs when someone is certain they know a word but can’t say it

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories but still recalling past

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past (old information stored in LTM)

H.M.

had puzzling seizures and underwent brain surgery to remove the hippocampus, which gave him permanent anterograde amnesia; would forget immediately what happened a few seconds ago

Clive Wearing

contracted viral encephalitis which seriously impaired the function of his left/right hippocampus and parts of his frontal lobe, more serious ant. amn. than H.M.; living a moment-to-moment life

encoding failure

much of what we sense is what we fail to notice, encode, and remember

storage decay

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

retrieval failure

stored information cannot be accessed

proactive interference

old learning disrupts recall of new learning

retroactive interference

new learning disrupts recall of old learning

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event; creates false memories

Dr. Elizabeth Loftus

people view a film of a car accident and when asked a leading question, they would respond that they witnessed a more serious accident

source misattribution

attributing to the wrong source of an event that we have experienced, heard, read, or imagined

déjà vu

the human eerie sense of “I’ve felt/experienced this before,” often fleeting; cues from the current situation unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

false memories

filling in gaps in memory with reasonably established guesses or assumptions; absorbed into our memory and feels as real as if it were an actual experience

imagination inflation

type of memory distortion that occurs when imagining a nonexistent event; increases confidence in the person’s false memory of the event

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating; appreciating human smarts and intelligence

metacognition

being aware of how one thinks and learns; thinking about thinking

concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

schema

all the associations that go with the concept

prototype

most common example of something; mental image; efficient method for categorizing items

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution (eg. intelligence tests)

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions; different directions (eg. creative tests - solving problems with ambiguous meanings)

components of creativity

expertise; imaginative thinking skills; venturesome personality; intrinsic motivation; creative environment

functional fixedness

forgetting that something has multiple uses (eg. a butter knife is used to open soda cans)

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem; contrasts with the usually quicker but error-prone use of heuristics

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on if instances come readily to mind; we presume events as common b/c of their vividness; NO PROTOTYPE

representativeness heuristic

judging likelihood of things based on how well they represent/match specific prototypes; may lead to ignorance of other relevant information; PROTOTYPE

insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions; AHA MOMENT

confirmation bias

tendency to search for information that supports preconceptions; ignore or distort contradictory evidence

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, especially after that way has been successful in the past

executive function

set of neurological skills that allow people to plan, focus, and control impulses; helps people make healthy and good decisions

intuition

an effortless, immediate, and automatic feeling or thought; contrasts with explicit, conscious reasoning

powers of intuition

can focus conscious awareness on all experiences through selective awareness; quick reactions; implicit knowledge

overconfidence

tendency to be more confident than correct; overestimating the accuracy of beliefs and judgments

belief perseverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

gambler’s fallacy

belief that the probability of a random event occurring in the future is influenced by that event’s previous instances/outcomes

sunk-cost fallacy

tendency to follow through on something that we’ve already invested heavily in (time, money, effort, emotional energy, etc) even when giving up is clearly a better idea

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

phonemes

the smallest distinctive sound unit in a language

morphemes

smallest units that carry meaning in a language (word or part of word)

semantics

set of rules for deriving meaning from sound

syntax

set of rules for combining words into grammatically acceptable sentences

babbling stage

beginning at 4 months - stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

one-word stage

age 1 to 2 - stage of speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words

two-word stage

begins at age 2 - speech development stage during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs

Noam Chomsky’s Universal Grammar

all human languages have nouns, verbs, and adjectives, and humans have an inborn predisposition to learn grammar rules

statistical learning

ability to determine which syllables most often go together based on statistical analysis and sequences that repeatedly appeared

critical periods

sensitive period; mastering certain aspects of language often before puberty