EDEXCEL A -LEVEL: SOUTH AFRICA UNIT 4

What was Botha's policy?

P.W Botha was determined to keep South Africa under white control.

His government believed that white South Africa was under threat from communist forces both within and outside South Africa. He called this threat 'total onslaught'. Botha's response was 'total strategy'.

Why did 'Total Strategy' fail?

• South Africa's economy was struggling partly due to economic sanctions, rising inflation from 11% to 1983 to 18% by 1986.

- News of government operations served only to harden world opinion against South Africa and Live Support to opposition groups

•There was no end to violence in the townships

•The Security forces seemed unable to prevent the ANC and other groups comm acts of terror within South Africa, for example, attacking bars popular with members of the security forces. The number of incidents rose from 4ps in 1984 to 281 by 1988

- There was dissent within Botha's government: Some wanted to maintain the military pressure, but it became apparent that this wasn't succeeding

What were Botha's reforms?

As a result of these failures Botha adopted a new policy. This reform policy has been called 'WHAM' (Winning of Hearts and Minds' and 'Adapt or Die.'

These were:

Constitutional reforms

Governance

His role as PM

Constitutional reforms

• In 1984, Botha introduced a new constitution after a Constitutional reforms referendum of white voters accepted it by a two-to-one majority.

• There was to be a new tricameral Parliament.
  

  •House of Assembly, comprising 178 white members

  
  •House of Representatives, comprising 85 coloured members

  •House of Delegates, comprising 45 Indian members
  

• In any Joint Sessions, white members could out rote the other two groups, Africans weren't represented at all.

Governance

• There would be a multi-racial cabinet responsible for general affairs, by which was meant issues such as taxation, defence, business and foreign affairs.

• Uniracial ministerial councils were to be responsible for their own affairs, for example in education, health raeval groups. and government, in a star as these applied to the separate racial groups

His role as PM

-The PM became a president with executive powers, thereby increasing a role that had formerly been largely Ceremonial.

-Now the PM was:

•Elected by a college of so voters, including So white, 25 Coloured and 13 Indian MPs

•Given the power to dissolve Parliament at any time

•Responsible for African affairs

•Given the power to appoint a cabinet from members of all 3 haules

- In addition, the Multiracial President's council was given the power to settle and disputes between the 3 houses. The new system faced fierce criticism and the backlash from intransigent white politicians led to the formation of the Conservative Party of South Africa

What was the Rubicon Speech, 15th August 1985?

• Global audience expected Botha to announce real reform in South Africa and many expected the release of Mandela.

• 'South Africa's problems will be solved by South Africans and not by foreigners... My Government and I are determined to press ahead with our reform programme and to those who prefer revolution to reform, I say they will not succeed'.

• Talks regarding Mandela's release, however Botha did not take the final step of releasing Mandela.
  

• Government oppression continued and Botha intensified military activities against the ANC and PAC based abroad.

• His speech let down many expectations (outlawing discrimination and releasing Mandela).

What were the consequences of Botha's reforms and the Rubicon speech?

1.What impact did economic problems have on South Africa?

2. What impact did international isolation have on South Africa?

3. What was the effect of the state of emergency?

4. Why was America more willing to impose economic sanctions on South Africa?

1.What impact did economic problems have on South Africa?

The. economic problems impacted South Africa as a result of Us Sanctions! and the boycott by banks. In 1985 and 1984, over yous forms such as kodak closed down their South African Operations.

In 1983, the international Value of the rand fell by 35% and the stock exchange was in crisis.

The foreign exchange temporarily closed on August 30th 1985 to uphold the value of the rand by stifling the amount of money leaving the Country. The cost of imports rose by 60% between 1986-1987.

Sally Tomlin, a diarist who worked with disadvantaged Younth people, often mentioned Price rises and their impact on the economy and everyday life. On 1 April 1984, electricity rose bo%, while on 22nd January 1985 petrol rose 31%

In 1987, world bank figures suggested that SA growth rates were among the lowest in the developed world, while inflation was the third highest among the Endustrial nations.

Afrikaner businessmen were very pessimistcy searing pessimistic would never return without meaningful reform. The white populatio was in the decline while that of the African people rose exponentially, especially in the cities. It was estimated that black African people would outnumber white s by 5/1 by 2000

Ironically, non-white South Africam people as a whole were growing more wealthy, with the emergence of the new middle class. It was estimated that the national percentage of disposable income for white people would fall from 55-42.5% between 1985 and 2000.

2. What impact did international isolation have on South Africa?

• SA government saved increasing pressures in the mid-1980s which resulted. in the declaration of a new state of emergency in 1986

• So, Botha had to come to the decision of secretly beginning talls with outlawed and improsoned leaders such as Mandela,
  
  

• Apartheid was being reformed and yet what remained and yet what remained was being enforced ever more rigorously
  

• Botha was prepared to talk to anti-apartheid campaigners, yet the security forces oppressed them more severely. His "Rubicon' speech let down many expectations (of outlawing discrimination and freeing, Mandela) and caused the rand to fall dramatically against other currencies,
  

• The later 1980's saw a government in turmoil with its problems exacerbated by economic crisis.

3. What was the effect of the state of emergency?

Botha established a state of emergency in 1986 with it's aim being to re-establish internal control, Particularly over the townships, However it Sought also a lasting settlement within SA and continued domination over its neighbours.

These ideas were no longer featible unless the fundamentals at the regime were changed

Utimately:

- The state of emergency didn't remove the underlying problems, which were
now too great to control through coercion.

• The SADF deployed almost 8000 troops in the townships and committed acts of barbarusan whoch, by 1987, Saw 43 admitted deaths in police custody and as many as 24,000 arrests-but violence continued.
over 30 organisations including the UDF were banned, Media restrictions meant that comparatively little went reported

• The main essect of the state of emergency was to turn South Africa into a dictatorship governed by coercion and suppression of information, but this had little problems

• Internationally, many countries saw Botha's reforms as window dressing at best The Continuing violence and brutality on the part of both the authorities and increasing buntess groups added to the Concerns
  In particular, his consitutional reforms in 1984 were criticosed because:
  

  • White SA people dominated
  

  • Racial Separation was maintained.
  

  • The President was too powerful, for example being able to dissolve parliament at any time
  

  •Reforms were costly and bever-bureaucratic
  

  
  • African people were isolated with no input. They were granted fowers in local government but this created more problems than it solved. Indian and coloured SA people were at best apathetol and at worst hostile, for example only 30% of coloured voters and 20% of Indian Voters participated in the elections

• The consitutional reform was generally seen as too little, too late as a last-ditch attempt to maintain white supremacy

What were Botha's reforms?

Legalised black trade unions

A new parliament was created with three chambers - one for whites, one for coloureds and one for Asians.

Create a black African middle class to create competition among non-whites and counter black activists.

Some of the apartheid laws were abolished e.g. mixed marriages act

Allow black South Africans to move around the country more freely and buy houses as recommended by the Reikert Report (1979).

What were the results of Botha's reforms?

White Opposition

• The SA government was accused of brutal, often covert, activities within South Africa, In 1984, the State Security Council authorised the assassination of the Cradock Four anti-apartheid activists.

• In 1987, the SA government were accused of bombing the Hor of COSATU on the basis that it was used by members of Mk.

• In 1987, the caravan co-operation Bureau was established to identity. the State, after which the security forces would act, for example, assassinating anti-apartheid
  critic David Webster

• Many of the operations in which Security forces were involved were covert:

  •Crowbar was a special-force group, founded in 1979, and trained to sight the South West Afrocan People's Organisation (SWAPO) in Namibia.
  

  • Government forces also infiltrated cells within SA, usont spies and collaborat
  

  - At other times, the authorities simply reacted to demonstations with bratality. In 1986, alone, as many as 500 black African people were shot dead by police.
  

• The security forces became almost a state within a state. They carried out as Many as to political assassinations.

• They made raids in nearby countries Anyda, Lesotho, Mozambique and Zimbabwe
  

• In 1982, they bombed the ANC Her in London. However, they were also operating within SA itself.
  

• -A ‘third force' was operated by members of the government's security forces. This worked with regolante groups to undertake covert operations in order to undermine any attempt at negotiations.

• However, it's also important to say that commentators Shunned any suggestion of official government Involvement in the ‘third force’. Many now believe it was made up of roque groups operating Secretly and without the knowledge of the most
  Senior officers and government officials

• The security forces often helped vigilante grours who in the 80’s,later were accused of responsibility for 90% of deaths related to unrest,
  

• One gang in 1985, the Phakatis, terrorised those Supporting a schools boycott in the Orange Free State, In 1988, vigilante groups were blamed for the deaths of 1200 people in the Edendale Valley, a centre of unrest and ANC Support in Natal.
  

• In 1991, the Scandal of "Inkhafate" broke when it was discovered that certain members of the security forces were giving covert assistance to Inkhata cadres and Sometimes alcompanying them on operations
  

• It was discovered, that the so-called 'third force had cooperated with Inkhata in the of murder of 13 members of the family of member ANC activist Victor
  

• Mandela was to report that the security forces themselves were destablising the Vaal Triangle area. There were stories that weapons confiscated by the authorities from ANC cadres mysteriously found themselves in the hands of Inkhata members Shortly afterwards,
  

• Similarly, the ANC had discovered that Inkhata members were going to attack ANC Supporters in Jebokeng township in the Vaal triangle on 22 July, Although they informed the authorities, mass amounts of Inkhabar members arrived in Sebokeng, accompanied by members of the security forces, who did nothing to prevent subsequent attacks.

Black Opposition

• There had long been hostility between mofrant workers who loved without their Jamilies in barracks - hostels and residents of the townships who favoured the ANC.
  

• In 1980s, this enmity escalated particularly in Natal between supporters of the ANC and Inkhata. Because the latter fended to support the government more
  they often had secret assistance from the security forces in their attacks on alleged supporters of the ANC
  

• Many feared that SA was descending into Civil War. The townships, on particular, Seemed uncontrolled. The government itself added to the Velence with it's often brutal responses

What was the United Democratic Front?

• In August 1983, 575 organisations in South Africa founded the United Democratic. Front (UDF), whose aim was to co-ordinate internal oppositten, specifically against Botha's convitational reforms.
  

• Its wider goal was the creation of a new SA government based on the tenents of the Freedom Charter.

• Initially, the UDF was based heavily influenced by Christian principles. Influential activists in its creation included Senior Christian figurer such as Allan Boejak and Frank Chicane, who condemned apartheid and the absence of Secular leaders (who were either imprisoned or in exite), became leading voices for change in the 80’s.

• The UDF came to be seen as the internal wing of the ANC, although ot renounced violence.
  

• However, because it was a loose organisation, many affiliated groups were militant and some turned to Violent demonstrations and dat intimidation within their communities. Critics argued that the UDF had no control over such groups.

Protest Strategies.

• Support for the UDF may have been as high as 2 million people.

• Many responded to Tambo's exhortation to make SA ungovernable.
  

• The UDF was supported by the Indian Congresses and COSATU. The number of Strokes rapidly increased and the number of days lost grew from I million in 1986
  to 6 million in 1987.

• The UDF orfanosed marches, protests and demonstrations throughout South Africe. Local groups, such as the Port Elizabeth Black Civic organisation, were affiliated and organised protests against, for example, poor housing and lack of electric supplies under its banner
  

• The Congress of South African Students (COSAS), created in 1979 in the aftermath of the Soweto Uprising, organised srement School Strokes and boycotts. The problem with this was that students were at risk of missing out of such edulat- ion as was available in Schools.
  

• The National Education Crisis Committee (NECC), formed in March 1986, tried both to provide alternative educational facilities and to encourage students to return to School. It felt they required education even if it was substandard. Students needed to be educated as far as possible to understand the issues facing them and be able to function effectively in a post-apartheid Society
  

• In 1983 and 1984, UDF groups campaigned to collect a million Signatures for a mass petition against the proposed new Consitution and African local government. Less than 12% of African people voted in the elections for the new community councils

Grass Roots Organisation:
- The UDF began a programme of 'people's organs, People's Power’ using local organisations to plan such activities as rent strikes and local courts to oversee communities

- By 1989, rent arrears had grown to half a billion rand. In 1983-1984, Cisked Worker's boycotted the buses taking them to work in the City of East London.

Rallies:
- The 1980's Saw more mass rallies and protests. Increasingly, these became more nationalist in tone, with Hays and banners of banned organisations such as the ANC, incendiary Speeches and the widespread use of the ANC anthem “God Bless Africa".

- Often the funerals of victions of the vidence because focal for protest: the victim themselves, especially if they had been activists, were seen as martyrs to the
Struggle and celebrated as heroes

-The advantage of these activities for the UDF was that there were no national figures to arrest or ban; although in 1987 the UDF was banned, and many members were arrested, its activities continued because there was no Central organisation for the security forces to target.

-The problem was that UDF-Sponsored organisations were unable to stem a growing rate of Violence.

What was the Vaal Triangle uprising (1984)?

• The Vaal Triangle is a triangular area formed by Vereeniging, Vanderbijlpark and Sasolbury about bokm South of Johannesburg.
  

• In September 1989, the protesters, were demanding against rent hikes in the Vaal as well as removing apartheid and unpopular black authorities.
  

• The Councils were unpopular from the beginning due to there being now representation of black South Africans in them
  

• The SADF sorces in the townships held a total of 7000 troops and were sent to crush the uprising.
  
  

• The uprising, was significant since of was the sorst stages indicating apartheid was ending

Why was there a growth in communal violence?

Where is the Vaal Triangle?
What were the protestors demanding in September 1984?
Why were the councils unpopular from the beginning?
What did SADF begin to do in the townships?
What was the remarkable thing about the uprising?

Why was there a change in 1986?

• By 1986 the pattern of violence had changed: more blacks were killed by other blacks than by police.

• Different groups of Africans were turning on each other.
  

• Zulu group Inkatha led by Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi emerged claiming to be national liberation group, but responsible for black on black violence.

Who was Chief Buthelezi and what was Inkatha?

Powerful chief of Zulu nation

Opposed apartheid but prepared to work for reform

Wanted Zulu to be part of South Africa and have an equal footing on how the country is run.

Opposed democracy - Zulu one party state

Won support of foreign leaders such as US president Reagan, and PM Thatcher.

Supported capitalism and rejected communism.

Why did the relationship between Inkatha and the ANC break down?

• Buthelezi grew distant from the ANC while it was in exile
  

• Relations between Inkhatha and the ANL bekame hostile when a Conference held in London in 1979. failed to settle the differences between Inkhatha and ANC and from this time relations were hostile.
  

• Inkhatha opposed the UDF as he opposed the creation of it as a front for the ANC.

• The government Involvement in Inkhata was they gave Inkhather locations
  of the ANC and members, as well as arms.

Why was there a growth in black resistance groups?

AZAPO-Azanian People's Organisation

ANC

Buthelezi and Inkatha

UDF

AZAPO-Azanian People's Organisation

Aims:

• Promote Black Consciousness and self-reliance.

• Fight against apartheid and white minority rule.

• Establish a socialist society based on African self-determination.

Methods:

• Political mobilisation through Black Consciousness ideology.

• Boycotts, protests, and grassroots organising.

• Opposition to negotiations with the apartheid government.

ANC

Aims:

• End apartheid and establish a democratic South Africa.

• Advocate for equality, land reform, and social justice.

• Unite all racial groups under a non-racial democracy.

Methods:

• Initially peaceful protests and petitions.

• Armed resistance through Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) after 1961.

• International lobbying and sanctions campaigns.

• Negotiations leading to democratic transition.

Buthelezi and Inkatha

Aims:

• Promote Zulu nationalism and cultural identity.

• Advocate for federalism rather than a centralised government.

• Initially sought peaceful reforms but later engaged in political violence.

Methods:

• Political organising within KwaZulu and beyond.

• Initially collaborated with the apartheid government for limited autonomy.

• Armed conflicts with ANC supporters, especially in the 1980s-1990s.

UDF

• Oppose apartheid policies and support the ANC’s vision of a democratic South Africa.

• Mobilise grassroots resistance and unify anti-apartheid movements.

Methods:

• Mass protests, strikes, and boycotts.

• Civil disobedience campaigns.

• Collaboration with international anti-apartheid efforts.

How did resistance change in the 1980s?

• 1983 - UDF cooperate internal opposition - incorporated the Freedom charter. Supported Tambo's call to make South Africa ungovernable in 1984.

• UDF began a programme of 'Peoples Power' - more mass rallies, protests and boycotts - more nationalist tone with flags and banners of the ANC.
  

• 1985 - ANC called for a People's War. ANC struggle no longer just sabotage. Youths saw themselves as comrades.

• Growth of violence within townships that the UDF couldn't stem.
  Vaal Triangle uprising (1984)
  Alexandra, Johannesburg (1985)

Vaal Triangle uprising (1984)

• The Vaal Triangle was a site of Sharpeville and was a significant centre of political organisation during the 1970s, but on 3 September 1984 - the day that the tricameral parliament opened in Cape Town - an uprising against the government erupted in the Vaal Triangle and councillors were killed in Sharpeville and Sebokeng.

• The Vaal Civic Association, affiliated to the UDF, had initially led the protests but lost control of the crowds. They did not advocate the killing of the councillors, which constituted a new departure and a redrawing by angry youth of the boundaries of legitimate protest.

• This was a break from the recent past in the Vaal Triangle at least. The crowds were prepared to vent their anger and take vengeance on councillors whom they thought had betrayed the community.
  

• In the aftermath of 3 September, this type of violence became engrained in new forms of political protest. The new generation of rebels were younger, often at high school or having recently completed it, but with little prospect of employment.

• There was a rapid turnover in leadership as known members of the UDF were detained. The youth, at least initially, worked incognito. They had a deep knowledge of the backstreets and safe houses, and tried to establish their own system of clandestine communication. They formed tight networks and political solidarity was essential because it was literally a matter of life and death.

• The Congress of South African Students (COSAS), established in 1979, had become the most representative body for scholars. Along with African newspapers, it led the call to free Mandela in 1980.

• During 1984-85, they called for a renewed school boycott, and started branches in many high schools in the country. In effect they were asking that generation of schoolchildren to secure 'liberation before education: COSAS itself had little organised presence in upsurges such as the Vaal uprising but it did participate in organising, with trade unions, a massive stayaway in November 1984.
  

• In October 1984, following the Vaal uprising, the ANC in exile issued a call for 'making our country ungovernable.

• The movement was banned and direct identification was dangerous, but the ANC did have some means of communication to South Africa through its Radio Freedom and other vehicles. Radio Freedom helped to shape the consciousness and language of militant youth to whom the armed struggle and mystique of MK were attractive.

Alexandra, Johannesburg (1985)

• At the end of 1985, Alexandra, a densely packed African township, became a new centre of gravity for rebellion. Once on the northern periphery of Johannesburg, by the 1980s it abutted rapidly expanding wealthy suburbs such as Sandton.
  

• The revolt there broke out early in 1986, after a month of tension, and became known as the 'Six Day War. It was triggered when a youth activist, Michael Diradeng, was shot by a security guard at the end of January. A night vigil was organised on 14 February and the comrades decided to mobilise mass participation by encouraging, and even coercing, people to attend.

• On their route around the township they petrol bombed the shop, Jazz Stores, where Diradeng had died, and set fire to others as well as stoning cars. They then burnt some houses, including those of black policemen. Early next morning they stabbed a policeman. Diradeng's funeral took place next day accompanied by attacks on the police and homes of councillors.

• Police tear-gassed and fired on a crowd of 6,000 youth and four residents were killed. Most police fled their homes in the township. A rally of perhaps 40,000 people was organised at the stadium. By now the township had been surrounded and sealed off by the army. This was a people's war by the 'young lions of Alexandra' but it was not led directly by the ANC. Police killed perhaps 27 people and order was reimposed.
  

• A particularly important feature of the Alexandra rebellion was its longevity. It did not end after this intense period of violence. Youths and other comrades tried to develop an alternative order over the township in the shape of people's courts, echoing events in the rural areas around 1960.

What involvement did the government have in the violence between the ANC and IFP?

• A 'third force' was operated by members of government security forces. Undertook covert operations with vigilante groups.

• Inkathagate scandal (1991) - members of the security forces were giving covert assistance to Inkhata cadres, and sometimes accompanying them in operations.

What activities had 'Third Force' been involved in against the ANC?

• Bombing the HQ of trade unions, causing panic and people urning on each other

Cradock Four

• Matthew Gonime, Fort Gut Calata, Sparrow Mikhento and Suelo Mhlauts were anti-apartheid activists from the town of Cradock (now Nuba) in the Eastern Cape province who were abducted, after being arrested at a roadblock set by the Security Branch

• Their bodies were sound, after they were assaulted, murdered and burned in different areas near Port Elizabeth.
  

• To this day, no one knows who actually murdered them.
  

• Their deaths gave more publicity towards the police and governments being a reason. why apartheid ended.

What other examples are there of government violence against anti-apartheid activists?

• Accused of brutal, often covert, activities within South Africa.

• 1984 - 'Cradock Four' anti-apartheid activities assassinated by the State Security Council.
  

• 1987 - accused of bombing the headquarters of Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) due to its links with the ANC.
  

• 1989 - Assassination of David Webster (anti-apartheid critic) after being identified as an enemy of the state.

What covert operations were the security forces involved in?

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What was the political situation in South Africa?

1982: Conservative Party was set up.

1983: Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (Afrikaner Resistance Movement) was set up.

The AWB: Afrikaner nationalist, neo-Nazi political party in South Africa.

Who was P.W. Botha?

• PM - 1978
  

• President - 1983
  

• Aimed to uphold apartheid and white supremacy through 'Total Strategy' inside and outside of South Africa.
  

• Uses oppression and limited reform.
  

• Rubicon Speech - 15th August 1985

What were the economic sanctions?

• Botha's speech let down many expectations eg of outlawing discrimination and freeing Mandela.

• Business leaders who had believed that Botha would make reform work changed their minds.
  

• Barclay's sold their South African banks.
  

• Other businesses gave way to years of pressure from their stakeholders and pulled out.
  

• Botha's speech was the last straw for US bankers. The South African Stock Exchange was closed.
  

• 90 US firms closed SA operations

State of Emergency 1985 - 1990

• July 1985 - P.W. Botha declared the State of Emergency in 36 magisterial districts. Areas affected were the Eastern Cape, and the PWV region ("Pretoria, Witwatersrand, Vereeniging"). Three months later the Western Cape was included as well.

• During this state of emergency about 2,436 people were detained under the Internal Security Act. This act gave police and the military sweeping powers. The government could implement curfews controlling the movement of people. The president could rule by decree without referring to the constitution or to parliament.
  

• Another state of emergency was declared on 12 June 1986 to cover the whole country. The government amended the Public Security Act, expanding its powers to include the right to declare certain places "unrest areas". This allowed the state to employ extraordinary measures to crush protests in these areas.

• Television cameras were banned from entering "unrest areas".
  The state broadcaster, the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) provided propaganda in support of the government. This version of reality was challenged by a range of pro-ANC alternative publications.

• In 1989, with the State of Emergency extended to a fourth year, Prime Minister Botha met Mandela and agreed to work for a peaceful solution to the conflict in the country. Talks commenced with the ANC, prominent business leaders, and the Commonwealth.

• The state of emergency continued until 1990, when F.W. de Klerk became the State President, and lifted the 30-year ban on leading anti-apartheid groups such as the ANC and the SACP. He also made his first public commitment to release jailed ANC leader Nelson Mandela, returned to press freedom and suspended the death penalty.

Why did Botha agree to meet with Mandela in July 1989 and negotiate an end to apartheid?

• On 5 July 1989, Nelson Mandela met with President P.W. Botha in secret. At the time, Mandela was still imprisoned.

• The unfavourable economic situation of South Africa, due to sanctions and lack of foreign investment, as well as the growing discontent internally meant that apartheid was no longer feasible and changes needed to take place.
  

• Mandela knew that talks with the government needed to be conducted in order to negotiate an end to apartheid.
  

• This meeting is regarded as significant as it brought together two opposing leaders in a surprisingly cordial manner. This led to further negotiations between the government and the African National Congress (ANC) that would eventually bring an end to apartheid.

What was the State of Emergency?

• In June 1985, Botha declared a State of Emergency within 36 districts to re-establish internal control in the townships.
  

• Sent the troops into townships protected by armoured vehicles and prepared to use their weapon.
  

• The State of Emergency was made nationwide in 1986.
  

• The National Party had the power to repress black political protest as the army and police were entirely controlled by whites who remained loyal to the regime.
  

• Common police tactics included mass arrests, imprisonment and banning orders, but there were cases of kidnappings, interrogation under torture and deaths.

What was the effect of the State of Emergency?

• SADF deployed 8000 troops in the townships and committed acts of barbarism. By 1987, 42 admitted deaths in police custody and as many as 29,000 arrests.

• Over 30 organisations including the UDF were banned.
  

• Turn SA into a dictatorship governed by coercion and suppression of information.

Why was A State Of Emergency declared?

• Protests against the government

• Sacrifices for the cause (Burning Yourself)

• Burning flags

• Throwing tear gas at orotestors and at forces

• Forces responding with violence

• To control the townships and protests by anti-apartheid groups

How did the government use violence and suppression?

• Government accused of brutal, often covert, activities within South Africa.

• 1984 - State Security Council authorised the assassination of the 'Cradock Four' anti-apartheid activists.
  

• 1987 - bombed headquarters of COSATU.
  

• 1987 - the Civilian Co-operation Bureau established to identify 'enemies of the state' and act - assassinated David Webster (anti-apartheid critic) in May 1989.
  

• Security forces used covert action:
  Crowbar was a special forces group (1979) and trained to fight the South West African People's Organisation (SWAPO) in Namibia.
  

• Government forces used spies and collaborators.
  

• Authorities simply used brutality.
  1986 - 500 black Africans shot dead by the police.
  

• 40 political assassinations.
  Raids in neighbouring countries.
  'Third force

Why did the National Party split?

The Herstigte National Party:

• Many Afrikaners believed that the pure apartheid of the Verwoerd years was the only solution to the country's racial problems and shouldn't be altered,
  

• Already in 1968, 3 cabinet ministers had resigned when Vorster had allowed Soreign countries to be represented by black ambassadors and had formed the Herstigte (Reformed) National Party.
  

• These followers of pure apartheid were known as verkramptes, meaning "the narrow ones”, in contrast to those who were ready to consider reforms, the verligtes, or “the enlightened ones"

The Conservative Party:

• In 1982, Dr Treatnicht along with 18 MP's who were critical of the new constitutional proposals - especially the idea of even limited power Sharing with coloured and Indian-made them split from the NP and found the Conservative Party (CP).
  

• During the crisis of 1984-1986, they did well & elections

The Afrikaner Resistance Movement:

• A more extreme group for Afrikaners was the Afrikaner Resistance Movement.
  (AWB), formed in 1979.
  

• With its banners, uniforms, racism and obvious pleasure in breaking up meetings with violence, it had uncomfortable Similarities with Hitler's Nazi Movement.

Why did Botha decide to negotiate in the years 1985-1989?

• International isolation 

• Failure of ‘total strategy’

• Role of anti-apartheid activists

• Effects of the State Of Emergency 

• Unrest in the townships

• Internal economic problems 

How did Black Church leaders put pressure on Botha and De Klerk to end apartheid?

• With leaders such as Nelson Mandela in prison and others in exile like Oliver Tambo or dead like Steve Biko, black South Africans needed new leaders to speak up for them. 

• The few organizations that could speak for Black South Africans were the Churches.

• Main church leaders got involved because they saw apartheid as fundamentally unchristian.

How did Black Church leaders put pressure on Botha and De Klerk to end apartheid? 

• The government was far less likely to attack or arrest religious leaders, allowing them to potentially be more politically active in the struggle. 

• Beyers Naudé left the pro-apartheid Dutch Reformed Church and founded the Christian Institute of Southern Africa with other theologians, including Albert Geyser, Ben Marais and John de Gruchy. Naudé, along with the Institute, were banned in 1977, but he later became the general secretary of the South African Council of Churches (SACC), a religious association which supported anti-apartheid activities. 

• Frank Chikane was another general secretary of the SACC. He was detained four times because of his criticism of the government and once allegedly had an attempt on his life, initiated by Adriaan Vlok, former Minister of Law and Order.

• The charismatic Archbishop Desmond Tutu was yet another general secretary of the SACC. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts in 1984 and used his position and popularity to denounce the government and its policies. On 29 February 1988 Tutu, and a number of other church leaders, were arrested during a protest in front of the parliamentary buildings in Cape Town.

• Alan Boesak led the World Alliance of Reformed Churches (WARC). He was very influential in founding the UDF and was once jailed for a month after organising a march demanding the release of Nelson Mandela.

• Although church leaders were not totally immune to prosecution, they were able to criticise the government more freely than the leaders of militant groups. They were pivotal in altering public opinion regarding apartheid policies.

How did the media put pressure on South Africa?

• The Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute Concert, held on June 11th 1988 in Wembley Stadium in London, was watched live by an audience of 72,000 but also on television, by close on a billion people in over 60 countries of the world. 

• During the ten hours of the Mandela Birthday Concert, the attention of the world was focused, as perhaps never so powerfully before, on the evils of the apartheid regime, and, more especially, on the continued imprisonment of the acknowledged leader of the South African majority – Nelson Mandela.

Who was Frederik Willem de Klerk?

• Botha had a stroke in February 1989. F.W de Klerk becomes president.

• During his first speech he outlined a ‘New Course’ which promised a real end to apartheid and power sharing between different racial groups but not integration. 

• Development of appreciation of an educated skilled African middle class.

What was De Klerk’s ‘New Course’?

Feb 1990 - ANC unbanned, Mandela released

May 1990 - Discussions between ANC & National Party on future of South Africa

June 1991 - Group Areas Act and Population Registration act repealed

December 1991 - CODESA (Convention for a Democratic South Africa) talks begin

November 1993 - New constitution for South Africa agreed upon

April 1994 - First fully democratic elections held

Why did De Klerk decide upon a ‘New Course’?

• He had to bring law and order back to South Africa which was on the verge of a Civil War

• The South African economy was in deep trouble

• Politically isolated 

• The National Party was losing support

• The Cold War had ended and there was no longer any threat from Russia which meant support from USA and Western countries diminished.

• He believed that the ANC might not do very well once it had been unbanned

• De Klerk was religious and believed that God had chosen him to lead South Africa to a new future

Why was the release of Mandela and the unbanning of political parties significant? 

• Release of Mandela:

- Mandela met De Klerk in May 1989 and they both agreed to work together for peaceful and lasting settlement. Mandela was then released on 11^th February 1990.

• The unbanning of political parties:

- During his February 1990 speech at the official opening of Parliament, de Klerk lifted the ban on political parties and partial removal of state of emergency. The death penalty and press censorship was also abolished. But this all had little effect on violence in South Africa.

- The New Course was a statement to work towards equal rights for all South Africans. It recognised the need to talk to opposition groups. De Klerk legalised the ANC, PAC and SACP and long-term political prisoners were released.

- The ANC were not strong enough to take power anytime soon. It could not win a war against apartheid. Also, recognised the way forward was negotiation. 

What problems were there in reaching a solution?

Problems facing the National Party:

• De Klerk trying to lead South Africa away from over 40 years of apartheid - difficult to gain the support of the majority of white South Africans.
  

• The Conservative Party were demanding a return to full apartheid.
  

• The Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweding (AWB) were a group of far right wing racist groups led by Eugene Terre'Blanche and they threatened to fight for a white South Africa through acts of violence. They committed bombings and acts of intimidation. It sought to prevent negotiations by storming the halls where meetings were being held. They wanted a separate homeland for whites.

• White SA's suffered economically by the appearance of more skilled non-white people in the workforce. Removing apartheid would remove the protection of their jobs.

Problems facing the ANC

• ANC had no formal political organisation in South Africa due to being in exile. The ANC had been banned since 1960, so only had a relatively small membership.
  

• The ANC were violent and it was difficult to control them. They lacked internal organisation and administrative structures. In August 1990, Joe Slovo supported the ANC's renunciation of violence.
  

• The ANC did not achieve its membership target as many young angry blacks were not sure that the ANC was militant enough & Mandela was not sure that he could control the militants.
  

• Winnie Mandela caused problems by publicly advocating violence and Nelson publicly defended her several times even though her actions went against ANC policy. In late 1990 she was accused of killing the young activist Stompie Moeketsie, at her court hearing more damning evidence against Winnie was revealed, including her affairs whilst Mandela was in prison and misusing funds. Mandela announced their separation 18 months after leaving prison.

First Meet Up:

• In May 1990, the ANC & National Party meet for the first time
  

• However there were issues since they were Traditional enemies.
  

• ANC wondered why NP was not stopping the violence.
  

• Both wanted to rule SA and could not agree on the voting system.

What was CODESA 1991?

• CODESA 1991 was the Convention for a Democratic South Africa and charged with preparing the ground for a new consitution Since South Africa was in a tricameral parliament

• The declaration of Intent was a statement committing the government to the creation of non-facial, gender inclusive, multi - party democracy in South Africa.

• Elections would be on the basis of universal adult suffrage and proportional representation was likely to ensure that all parties with sufficient support were represented in parliament. Enabled De klerk to hold a referendum

What examples of violence were there?

 

 

Boipatong

Bisho

The Battle of Bop

Boipatong

• In Boipatong, a township South of Johanessburg, a group of Zulu migrant workers left their hotel during the night and Shot or hacked to death 38 people, including a pregnant woman and a 9 month old baby,
  

• Residents were convinced that the attackers were Inkatha supporters and had been directed by white police. When de Klerk tried to pay a sympathy visit 3 days later he was diriven away by an angry crowd and in a confrontation between the Crond and the police, the police opened fire, killing another 3 people.
  

Bisho

• Boipatong caused the ANC to end all tasks with de Klerk, who seemed to be unutulong for unable to make his security forces protect ANC followers.
  

• It organised strikes and demonstrations. One of these in September 1992, was a march on Bisho

• Capital of the Ciskei Bantustan. The ANC planned to abolish all Bantustan. The Ciskei dictator, Oupa Grazo, was very unpopular and the ANC thoped that it's march would lead to his resignation.

• It instead lead to the death of 28 marchers and the wounding of 200 move.

• Grazo’s troops simply machine gunned the unarmed demonstrators as they reached the Ciskei border.

The Battle of Bop

• In March 1994, the extreme right wing, desperate to show that it was a force to be reckoned with decided to to to the aid of Lucas Mangope of Bophuthatswana, another Bantustan leader in trouble.
  

• Mangope was refusing to allow his people to vote in the April elections in the hope of somehow keeping contra of Bop,.Consequently, 20,000 clivil servants went on strike and law and order broke down.
  

• The AWB leapt into their trucks and Motor cars and poured off to Mmabatho, Bop's Capital, armed with hunting rifles and pistols. Once there, they stupidly decided to take pot shots at whatever groups of blacks they found
  

• The actions of the AWB caused the Bop amy to muting against Mangope and tam the Weapons against the AWB gunmen, who left as fast as they build, but some failed and were shot by the Bop police.

Possible reasons for the violence

• The legacy of apartheid - Deeply entrenched political divisions and mistrust

• The continues strikes and demonstrations

• Suspicions of de Klerk - Only ended Apartheid for the economy of SA

• Inkatha and Chief Butheleizi - Wanted Zulu power, Feared loss of influence

• Were the police acting as a Third force and deliberately stirring up violence and did de Klerk know? - Blacks mistrust the State and their intentions, ongoing violence-and the anti-black protection from police, de Klerk probably knew and didn't do enough to stop them, SA military didn't protect blacks

What problems remained?
Violence

Continued communal violence:

17^th June 1992: Inkatha members killed 46 suspected ANC supporters in Boipatong. Mandela suspended negotiations with De Klerk. COSATU and SACP also began mass protests.

7^th September 1992: 70,000 ANC supporters marched to Bisho (capital of Ciskei) as the leader wanted to maintain independence. Ciskei forces opened fire and killed 30 protesters.

10^th April 1993: the leader of MK (Chris Hani) was murdered by a white extremist. De Klerk condemned white extremism.

What problems remained?
Politically

CODESA 2 (May 1992):

• Failed working model for the new constitution as Mandela accused the National Party of seeking to hold onto power. 

• The National Party and de Klerk also had no coherent agenda. 

• During meetings with advisers de Klerk refused to support suggestions for future non-racial democracy. He would publicly advocate without consulting his supporters.

How was the ‘rainbow nation’ created?
Violence

 

Withdrawal of Inkatha

Incursion of Bophuthatswana

Withdrawal of Inkatha

Explanation:

• Following the Declaration of Intent, the ANC and NP, as the most influential participants, agreed to reach agreement between themselves before taking proposuls to minority parties
  

• Buthelezi pulled Inkhatha out in protest and didn't return until days before the election for the interim government, which was finally ratified by the MPNF on 18th November 1993

How it contributed to ‘rainbow state’ being created.

Incursion of Bophuthatswana

Explanation.

• On 10th March 1994, 600 AWB members raided Bophuthatswain to rescue and reinstate the chief, Lucas Mangope.

• He had opposed the peace Settlement and been arrested by local forces who supported the ANC
  Supporter

• The raid was unstructured: Participants fived randomly at suspected ANC before they themselves were routed by Bophuthatswana forces.

• The fiasco saw the demise of the AWB and the arrest of Mangope.
  

  How it contributed to ‘rainbow nation' being created,
  

  • No more far right extremist groups to cause harm to ANC or other anti-apartheid groups

How was the ‘rainbow nation’ created?
Politically

Record of understanding

Constitutional agreement and elections

The new constitution

Elections

The government of national unity

Transition to democracy

Record of understanding

Explanation:

• 26th September 1992, a Record of Understanding was issued based on 3 principes:

  • The release of political prisoners

  • Physical restrictions on Zulu hostel dwellers who were held responsible for many of the Inkata- inspired murders and attacks
    openly

  • A banning of traditional weapons such as pangas, which many people carried

• In return, a future government has to gurantee employment and pension rights for existing public employees and power shaking between the leading parties
  

• In Feb 1993, Mandela conceeded that a future government would be one of "National Unity’ and would include members of all parties which recieved more than 5% of the vote, making it easier to negotiate a final settlement
  

• Wasn't easy to sell to ANC or NP members as they still distrusted one another
  

How it contributed to ‘rainbow nation’ being created:

• Started the Steps to he gotiations on ending apartheid.

Constitutional agreement and elections

Explanation:

• The new Political settlement was lasting and helped bring success of Rainbow nation,

• In Sept 1993, the Transitional Executive Council was set up, with its role chhanced
  to facilitate the new political system in SA.

• Itt's principal fall was to ensure protection for minorities while accepting majority rule; in other words, the creation of a rabow nation in which everyone would be valued irrespective of race-gain, the principles of the Freedom Charter of 1955
  

How it contributed to the creation of a ‘rainbow nation’

The new constitution

Explanation

How it contributed to the creation of a ‘rainbow nation’

Elections

Explanation:

• Elections were held on 27th April 1974.
  

  Results:

  • ANC Wan convincingly with 62*5% of the vote
    

  • NY won 20.5%, so beklerk became deputy President
    

  • Inkhata gained 10.5%, So Buthelezi became a government minister
    

  • The PAC, who udercated for conturued violence won 1.25%
    
    

How it contributed to the creation of a ‘rainbow nation’

• Led to AVC taking over government and ending apartheid

The government of national unity

Explanation:

• Mandela became president in a Government of National Unity.

• SA Still faced problems though, this was due to 43 years of apartheid not being able to be effected by a new consitution
  

• Mary African people were also frustrated by the low face of change, they lacked the education and skills to access most opportunities
  

• Crime remained high, white people opted to leave and newly appointed public servants were accused of corruption

How it contributed to the rainbow nation being created?

• Led to the creation of Acts and organisations to Settle disputes

Transition to democracy

Explanation:

• It was successful
  

• There was no serious threats to the new system and the ANC locked any effective opposition due to the NP fragmenting after be klerk's retivement in 1997
  

• The NY was too burdened with the Rust to create a new Profile
  

• To Unity the country, Mandela:
  

  • Galvanised country-wide Support for the national Rugby team, they won the 1995 World Cup

  • Set up a truth and Reconciliation in 1996 under the leadership of Archbishop Tutu, which investigated wrongdoings on all sides to confront the past and move forward peacefully.

How it contributed to the rainbow nation' ?

• Calmed down pressure and anger towards and as an effect from apartheid

How was the ‘rainbow nation’ created?

• CODESA 1 talks begin in December 1991. De Klerk held a referendum in March 1992 where 69% of whites agree to reform. 

• May 1992: the talks break down as Mandela accused the NP of seeking to hold on to power and are being misled while de Klerk was involved in battles within his own party to hold on to as much power as possible. Mandela also accused the NP of its involvement with Inkhata. 

• In the face of escalating violence, talks resume to reduce violence and get constitutional talks going again.

• 26^th September 1992: a Record of Understanding is issued comprising of three principles: release of all political prisoners, physical restrictions of Zulu hostel dwellers who were held responsible for many of the Inkhata-inspired murders and attacks,and a banning of traditional weapons such as pangas which many people carried openly. 

• In return, the future government was to guarantee employment and pension rights for existing public employees, and power showering between leading parties. This was known as the Sunset clause. It was Joe Slovo, leader of the South African Communist Party, who proposed this breakthrough "sunset clause“.

• Mandela agreed to the sunset clause in February 1993 and said a future government would be one of ‘National Unity’ and would include members of all parties who received more than 5% of the vote for the five years following a democratic election, which gave concessions to the National Party. The result was to a promise to hold elections the following April – one person one vote. A deadline was set for an agreement to be reached. The Conservative Party and Inkharta refused to have anything to do with agreements. 

• September 1993: the Transitional Executive Council set up to create a new political system in South Africa. Its goal was to ensure protection for minorities while accepting majority rule – ‘rainbow nation’ – principles of the Freedom Charter of 1955. By November 1993, a deal was made. 

• The New Constitution:

  • South Africa would be divided into 9 provinces to replace the old provinces and Bantustans, each with its owned elected governments and civil service.

  • 400 MPs elected through proportional representation

  • New system could only be amended by two-third majority of the popular vote.

  • Guaranteed power sharing for 5 years: while the president would come from the leading party, the deputy president could come from any party with over 20% of the vote (80 seats), and any party with more than 5% of the vote could have a minister appointed. 

• The ruler of the homeland called Bophuthatswana, seeing his power coming to an end, tried to prevent his people from voting, His government employees went on strike and the AWB members went to support him. They arrived in Bop and began shooting any black person they saw. This led the Bop army to mutiny against their ruler and the AWB gunmen were shot down. IT seems a grave warning of white violence to come, but the election passed off peacefully. Mangope was deposed by the government. 

• Buthelezi refused to take party until the last minute, but then agreed that Inkatha would stand. So, eventually, did the white conservatives.

• 26^th April 1994: elections were held; 20 million people waited patiently to vote, most of them for the first times in their lives. The result was a victory for the ANC, with 62.5% of the vote. Nelson Mandela became President. With 20.5% of the vote, the National Party gained the right to appoint de Klerk as Deputy President. Inkharta gained 10.5% of the vote and gained the right for Buthelezi to be a minister in Mandela’s government.