Personality Psychology Midterm 2

What is rank-order consistency?

It refers to how people maintain the ways in which they are different from others in a sample; personalities generally remain constant over time.

How high are personality correlations over 10 years?

Personality correlations over 10 years can be high, demonstrating rank-order consistency.

What is mean-level change?

Changes in the mean levels of a personality trait over time.

How is mean-level change measured in cross-sectional studies?

By surveying people at different ages at the same time.

How is mean-level change measured in longitudinal studies?

By repeatedly measuring the same individuals over the years from childhood to adulthood.

What is the difference between mean-level change and rank-order stability?

Mean-level change refers to how people change over time, while rank-order stability refers to how people stay the same over time.

What is the cumulative continuity principle?

Individual differences in personality become more consistent as one gets older.

What is the maturity principle?

The traits needed to perform adult roles effectively increase with age.

What is heterotypic continuity?

Fundamental personality tendencies are expressed differently as individuals age.

What are the three main dimensions of temperament?

Negative emotionality, positive emotionality, and effortful control. These develop over time into more complex personality traits.

What are active person-environment transactions?

When a person seeks out compatible environments and avoids incompatible ones.

What are evocative person-environment transactions?

When aspects of an individual's personality lead to behaviors that change the situations they experience.

What are reactive person-environment transactions?

When different people respond differently to the same situation.

What is the identity development principle?

People construct a sense of 'who am I' as they grow, which becomes a foundation for behavioral stability.

What is the role continuity principle?

Individuals tend to maintain consistency in their roles throughout their life.

What is the social clock?

It is the pressure to accomplish certain tasks by certain ages.

How does being 'on time' vs. 'off time' relate to psychological well-being?

Being on time often means social approval, while being off time can relate to less social approval.

According to Ravenna Helson’s research, what happens to women who don't follow either social clock?

They often become depressed and lonely.

What is a common reason people want to change their personality?

To become more socially desirable.

What is the most commonly cited trait people want to change?

Neuroticism.

What are three main barriers to personality change?

People like their personalities, tend to blame negative experiences on external forces, and prefer consistency in their lives.

How can personality change through psychotherapy?

By treating patients with unconditional positive regard and using cognitive behavioral therapy to apply adaptive emotional responses.

What is the role of exercise in personality change?

It can create a more stable personality and decrease declines in traits like conscientiousness and extraversion.

Why might personality change be seen as maladaptive?

It can backfire, especially on an unwilling patient.

What are common critiques of evolutionary theory?

Methods are hard to test, it has a conservative bias, undermines human flexibility, and underestimates the role of social structures.

What is behavioral genetics?

It addresses how personality traits that differ among individuals are passed from parent to child and shared by biological relatives.

What are two reasons why behavioral genetics has a complicated history?

A history of eugenics and cloning.

How many genes do humans have? What percentage of the genome is shared?

Approximately 30,000 genes with 99% shared among all humans.

What is heritability?

The amount of variability in personality due to genetic differences.

How is the heritability coefficient calculated?

(r identical twins - r fraternal twins) x 2.

What does a heritability coefficient of .60 signify?

It indicates that 60% of the variability in the trait is due to genetic differences between individuals.

What are typical heritability estimates for personality traits in twin vs. non-twin studies?

Twin studies show ~.40 heritability; non-twin studies show ~.20.

What does heritability not predict?

It can't tell you nature vs. nurture or how genes affect personality.

What do twin studies reveal about conscientiousness and neuroticism?

Conscientiousness is 50/50 genetic to environment; neuroticism is more environmental.

What are genome-wide association studies (GWAS)?

They look for associations between large numbers of genes and personality traits.

What is epigenetics?

It is the study of how experiences affect biology and genetic expression.

What are the three broad theories of happiness?

Bottom up (situational), top down (dispositional), and bi-directional.

What is the difference between hedonic and eudaimonic well-being?

Hedonic well-being seeks pleasure; eudaimonic well-being seeks meaning.

What is setpoint theory?

It suggests we return to a baseline level of happiness despite life events.

What does cross-cultural research say about happiness?

Happier countries have more resources, greater life expectancy, and social support.

What are five science-backed strategies to increase happiness?

Gratitude reflection, meditation, physical exercise, social connections, and having purpose.

What is 'flow'?

Being 'in the zone' where ability and challenge are perfectly matched.

What is mindfulness?

Being alert and aware of every thought and sensation.

What is the relationship between money and happiness?

Money can buy happiness only up to a point, typically plateauing around $75-90k.

What personality traits are associated with greater happiness?

Extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.

How does spending style influence well-being?

Spending on experiences and donating tends to enhance well-being.

What traits predict successful relationships?

Extraversion, agreeableness, and high positive emotionality.

What traits are associated with poor relationships?

Dispositional contempt, neuroticism, and social anxiety.

What is rejection sensitivity?

Heightened anxiety around perceived rejection, more common in individuals with ADHD or autism.

What are common 'dealbreaker' traits in relationships?

Untrustworthiness and anger issues.

What are the three adult attachment styles?

Secure, ambivalent (anxious), and avoidant.

Can attachment styles change?

Yes, changes can occur due to life events, with a trend toward security.

What is ghosting?

Unilaterally cutting off contact with a partner.

What traits are associated with a higher likelihood of ghosting?

Higher levels of machiavellianism and psychopathy.

What is sociosexuality?

The willingness to engage in casual sexual encounters.

Are there differences in outcomes for children of sexual minority vs. heterosexual parents?

No, outcomes do not significantly differ.

What does research suggest about compatibility vs. traits in attraction?

Compatibility can predict successful dates but not necessarily attraction.

What is the difference between traits and characteristic adaptations?

Traits refer to who people are, while characteristic adaptations reflect what they want to become.

What is the difference between short-term and long-term goals?

Short-term goals are specific and immediate; long-term goals are broad and future-oriented.

Why is it important to link short- and long-term goals?

To stay organized and focused on achieving desired long-term outcomes.

What are idiographic goals?

Goals that are unique to the individual who pursues them.

What are current concerns and personal strivings?

Current concerns are ongoing motivations until a goal is reached; personal strivings are long-term goals organizing life areas.

What are nomothetic goals?

Essential motivations that nearly everyone pursues.

What are McClelland’s three motives?

Need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power.

What is the difference between judgment goals and development goals?

Judgment goals seek to validate attributes, while development goals desire actual self-improvement.

What is the difference between entity and incremental mindsets?

Entity mindset sees qualities as fixed; incremental mindset sees them as changeable.

How do entity and incremental theorists differ in response to failure?

Entity theorists avoid reinvolvement after failure, while incremental theorists work harder to improve.

What is optimism vs. defensive pessimism?

Optimism assumes the best will happen; defensive pessimism assumes the worst.

What defines a goal vs. a strategy?

A goal is the desired endpoint; a strategy is the method to reach that endpoint.