Henry VIII & Cromwell (1529-40)

What was Cromwell’s personality

• Cromwell is often seen as a ruthless and unprincipled figure who was prepared to do the king’s ‘dirty work’, such as organising the execution of members of the nobility and dissolving the monasteries.

• In reality, Cromwell was capable of great loyalty to his friends and, indeed, to his predecessor, Wolsey.

• Cromwell had a vibrant personality and could be witty, charming and persuasive when he wanted or needed to be

How did Cromwell's early life prepare him for service to Henry?

• French army - spoke French, Dutch, Greek, Latin, Italian and Welsh.

• Moved to Florence, rose up in the house of Francesco Frescobaldi, a leading merchant banker- he was living in the city at the heart of the renaissance, so developed an appreciation for art, literature and culture

• Moved to Antwerp and became a cloth merchant- good with money

• Was a lawyer in the Star Chamber

How did Cromwell’s work with Wolsey help Cromwell to rise to power

• 1519- Became a member of Wolsey’s council and became a trusted adviser.

• 1523 became an MP

• 1529 Became MP for Taunton and used his position to argue for Wolsey in parliament and in court

• Cried when Wolsey died

How did the gaining of the annulment for Henry help Cromwell to rise to power

• By 1533, Anne had become pregnant, so Henry needed to annulment in order to marry Anne and make sure the child was legitimate

• So Cromwell passed the Act in Restraint of Appeals, which declared England as an empire, meaning they weren’t subject to foreign rule, including the pope- it made Henry Supreme Head of the Church of England

• Showed his value to Henry, and given the importance of the annulment, was important in his rise to power

How did Cromwell secure the annulment for Henry

• Cromwell quickly realised that Pope Clement VII was not willing to annul Henry’s marriage to Catherine as he did not want to upset Charles V.

• Cromwell, therefore, changed tactic, arguing that the power to grant an annulment should be taken from the pope and given to Henry instead.

• Henry and Anne Boleyn were secretly married by Archbishop Cramner in January 1533. This was important because Anne was already pregnant and there was a need for the child to be a legitimate heir to the throne.

• Parliament passed the Act in Restraint of Appeals in March 1533, asserting that England was an empire and not subject to any form of foreign rule. Henry was now head of the Church and only he, and not the pope, could annul his marriage to Catherine.

• A divorce hearing began in May 1533 in a court led by Archbishop Cranmer. The court announced that:

  • the pope’s legal dispensation allowing Henry to marry Catherine was invalid

  • Henry and Catherine had never been legally married

  • Henry’s secret marriage to Anne was valid because he had been a bachelor at the time.

• Anne was crowned as Henry’s queen in a royal coronation and gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth, in September 1533

Why did Cromwell rise to power

• Early Life

• Work with Wolsey

• Annulment

What did Cromwell do to get noticed by Henry?

Became Wolsey's trusted advisor - sent him to deliver news to the King - effectively an apprenticeship
Took complex legal cases in the Star Chamber.
Became an MP in 1523.
Remained loyal to Wolsey even after his downfall - impressed Henry with loyalty.

What was Cromwell appointed to in 1531?

The Royal Council

What act stated Britain was an Empire so not subject to the rule of the Pope?

The Act of Restraint of Appeals 1533.

What were Cromwell’s roles in government from 1533

• In charge of the Church - Became Vicar-General in 1535, with power to institute Church reform

• In charge of king’s personal seal- Became Lord Privy Seal in 1536, a senior position in the Privy Council with unlimited access to Henry’s documents.

• Influential role in law- Had become Master of the Rolls in 1533

• In charge of Henry’s household- Became Lord Great Chamberlain in 1540.

• In charge of finances- Had become Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1533

How did Anne Boleyn herself lead to her downfall

• Henry was becoming increasingly exasperated with Anne.

• She had failed to provide him with a male heir, while her assertive personality and flirtatious behaviour in court may have become an embarrassment to him, making him want to be rid of her.

• In 1536 Henry was 45 and he had fallen from his horse. He was scared he would die without a son

• Anne had strong opinions about foreign policy and religion that were not considered seemly and this increasingly irritated Henry.

How did Jane Seymour lead to Anne Boleyn’s downfall

• By early 1536, Henry was becoming infatuated with Jane Seymour and saw her as his queen and not just his mistress.

• Anne would have to be removed to make way for Jane.

• Jane was much quieter, meeker, and milder than Anne

How did Cromwell lead to Anne Boleyn’s downfall

• Cromwell was aware of Anne’s role in the downfall of Wolsey and did not want to share his fate.

• Anne and Cromwell had differences of opinion on foreign policy and how the income gained from the dissolution of the monasteries should be spent.

• Cromwell built the case for adultery against Anne, interviewing and torturing witnesses and using spies in the queen’s own bedchamber to unearth any evidence of adultery.

• She was accused of having affairs with Mark Smeaton (a court musician), courtiers Sir Francis Weston, Sir Henry Norris and Sir William Brereton and her brother, George Boleyn.

• Cromwell was able to use this evidence to persuade Henry and the court that Anne was guilty.

Why did Henry VIII execute Anne Boleyn on 19 May 1536?

• Jane Seymour

• Anne Boleyn’s behaviour and her failure to provide a son

• Cromwell

Why was it so important that Henry had a child with Jane

• Henry was keen to marry Jane as quickly as possible because he needed a child (and preferably a son) to become the legitimate heir to the throne.

• Without this, there was a risk that if Henry died, the succession would go to someone outside of the family.

• There was no longer an heir to the throne because:

  • Princess Mary and Princess Elizabeth had been declared illegitimate – both their mothers’ marriages to Henry had become invalid

  • Henry Fitzroy, Henry’s illegitimate son, had died soon after the Act of Succession had been passed in 1534, this was unfortunate because the Act allowed Henry to appoint any successor he liked and he could have appointed Henry Fitzroy

What happened after Edward was born

• Jane fulfilled her royal duty on 12 October 1537 by giving birth to a son, Edward (later to become Edward VI).

• This strengthened the succession and there was less chance of competing claims for the throne on Henry’s death.

• The birth also strengthened Henry’s authority because it suggested God had blessed Henry with a son, implying that his marriage to Jane and the events that preceded it (the execution of Anne and the annulment of his marriage to Catherine) were acceptable to God.
  

What happened after Jane Seymour’s death

• Less than two weeks after giving birth to Edward, Jane died.

• Henry went into a state of mourning and refused to marry again for another 2 years.

• In spite of this, the search to find a new wife for Henry started once more.

• He needed to marry again to produce more male heirs.

• A new marriage would also form the basis of an alliance with other European powers, helping to challenge the combined threat posed by Francis I and Charles V

• Jane's marriage to Henry gave the Seymour family a higher status within the royal court.

• Jane’s brothers made the most of this, in particular Edward, who was appointed to the Privy Council.

• After Jane’s death, the brothers, as uncles to Henry's heir, continued to be influential in court.

• Edward became an adviser to Henry, as well as first Earl of Hertford and later Duke of Somerset

Why did Cromwell reform the government?

• Divided country

• Underused Parliament

• Royal Council too big

• King’s Chamber lacked organisation

How did Cromwell solve the problem of the divided country through the council of the north

• The Council of the North had existed since 1472 and aimed to improve how the North of England was governed.

• It contained members of the nobility and churchmen.

• It had met from time to time under previous kings.

• Cromwell made it into a permanent institution, which from 1537 was responsible for maintaining law and order in the North.

• The Council was an important means by which rebellion was prevented and the government’s authority maintained.

• This was especially important after the Pilgrimage of Grace, which challenged Henry’s authority

How did Cromwell solve the problem of the divided country through reforms to Wales

• Passed the Act of Union in 1536 which officially made Wales part of the English Empire, giving it counties, representation in parliament, and made it under English Law, replacing welsh law

• English was declared the official language in Wales

• Wales was represented by 26 MPs.

• The Welsh March was divided up into new counties, each of which was controlled by a Justice of the Peace (JP).

• The purpose of these reforms was an attempt to tackle disorder in Wales, as well as secure the support of the Welsh gentry by giving them the same powers as their English equivalents

How was parliament used early in Henry’s reign

• Parliament had existed since the 13th century.

• It contained two chambers: the House of Lords (made up of landowners and bishops) and the House of Commons (made up of gentry and merchants).

• Its role was limited to approving taxation.

• It did not meet very often

• Henry’s style of government was to make his own decisions about things through the Royal Council.

• The decisions were pronounced by royal proclamation and he expected people to obey him.

• Cromwell wanted to change this

How did Cromwell develop the use of parliament

• Cromwell used parliament more regularly.

• Key changes in the Church and the state were made by Acts of Parliament (statute law).

• The king and Cromwell used parliament to gain support from the people who were significant: the nobility and churchmen in the House of Lords; and the merchants and gentry in the House of Commons.

• This strengthened the king’s authority as it suggested that these people approved of his ideas and policies by turning them into laws.

• 1509 -1531 = 203 acts.
  1532- 1540 = 333 acts

How did Cromwell effectively manage parliament

For this system to work, Henry and Cromwell had to ensure that there was support in parliament for the laws they wanted to pass. Cromwell achieved this by:

• Controlling parliamentary business, ensuring that ideas were debated and discussed and laws properly drafted (put together and worded properly)

• Sitting as an MP, which enabled him to guide debates and ensure that there was support for the laws he wanted to pass

• Using threats and intimidation to undermine any opposition.

• Increased the amount that Henry was in parliament, influencing decisions- referred to as ‘the King in Parliament’

How did Cromwell’s reforms change parliament

Before-

• Parliament had a limited role in making decisions.

• Laws were passed by the king and the Royal Council.

• Parliament was not consulted on all matters.

After-

• Parliament was at the centre of government – it had legislative power and could pass laws on all aspects of daily life.

• Laws were passed with approval of both houses of parliament and the king – this strengthened the king’s authority.

• Parliament could not be ignored and had to be consulted on all major laws the king wanted to pass.

How did Cromwell solve the problem of the royal council

• Cromwell argued that the Royal Council was too big as it contained up to 100 members.

• Cromwell replaced it with a new, simpler body known as the Privy Council, made up of about 20 permanent advisers.

• The Privy Council was increasingly composed of lawyers and professional administrators, rather than noblemen.

• Cromwell hoped that this would stop one person dominating, as all would have equal status and working experience.

• A clerk to the Privy Council was appointed to record decisions.

How did Cromwell solve the problem of the King’s Chamber lacking organisation

• Traditionally, the King’s Chamber was used to record the income (taxes, rents, etc.) and expenditure (money spent) of the king and his government.

• With the increase in income from the dissolution of the monasteries, Cromwell decided the Chamber couldn’t cope with the increased work, so he created six departments.

• Four dealt with the king’s traditional income, and two dealt with the increased work created by the dissolution:

• 1 The Court of Augmentations, which dealt with property and income from the dissolution of the monasteries. (created in 1536)

• 2 The Court of First Fruits and Tenths, which collected taxes from the clergy previously sent to the pope in Rome. (created in 1540)

• Each department had the power to settle financial disputes and was given its own budget.

• They were run by well-trained officials who were monitored by others to ensure that they were doing their jobs properly.

What was the importance of the reforms

• He created a professional civil service, no longer run by nobles and clergy.

• Power was centralised in London.

• The role of the Exchequer was increased and expenditure monitored by government officials and not by the king.

• Government was better organised

How did Cromwell and Religion cause the marriage to Anne of Cleves

• Cromwell was a reformer sympathetic to Protestant ideas. He believed that, by marrying Henry to Anne, the Protestant cause would be strengthened in court. Therefore, he encouraged Henry to accept this match.

• Cleves had also broken from Rome, so this would not only give them an ally, but also help to cement protestantism in England

How did the succession cause the marriage to Anne of Cleves

• Henry had still only one male heir – Edward. The risk of Edward dying young required a further marriage to produce more male heirs

• Reference to importance of son to Tudor lineage

How did the threat of invasion cause the marriage to Anne of Cleves

• By 1539, there seemed to be a real threat of a combined Catholic crusade against England launched by Charles V (ruler of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire) and Francis I (ruler of France).

• A marriage to Anne of Cleves would provide Henry with a valuable European ally, who might persuade other German states to help him if England was attacked.

• Unlike many European rulers, the Duke of Cleves seemed happy to marry Anne off to Henry, as he and other reformist states needed allies against Charles V.

• This was in spite of Henry’s marred reputation as someone who had killed his wife

Why did Henry marry Anne of Cleeves

• Cromwell

• Needed another heir

• Needed an ally

Which promotion did Cromwell gain just before his downfall?

Earl of Essex in 1540

How did the failure of the marriage to Anne of Cleves lead to Cromwell’s downfall

• Referred to Anne as Flanders Mare

• By the summer of 1540, the threat of invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire had declined and Henry no longer needed an alliance with the Duke of Cleves.

• He had also become attracted to Catherine Howard, one of the queen’s ladies-in-waiting.

• The marriage was annulled on the grounds of non-consummation after just four months.

• Anne was granted estates by the king and became known as the king’s ‘sister’.

• Henry blamed Cromwell for the failure of the marriage.

• This made Cromwell vulnerable to rivals at court, such as the Duke of Norfolk (Catherine Howard’s uncle), who wished to remove Cromwell from power.

How did religion lead to Cromwell’s downfall

• Cromwell was hated by French Catholics, especially Francis I, who saw him as a heretic and supporter of Charles V.

• Removing Cromwell from power would lead to improved relations with France and reduce the possibility of any Catholic crusade against England.

• Cromwell had many enemies within the court and in the Church.

• They resented his dissolution of the monasteries, the execution of John Fisher and Thomas More, as well as his support for the cause of reform and moving England to become Protestant.

• They were more than happy to vote in parliament for the Act of Attainder that led to Cromwell’s execution. To them, Cromwell was an ‘evil counsellor’ who had misled the king.

How did the Duke of Norfolk lead to Cromwell’s downfall

• Thomas Howard, the 3rd Duke of Norfolk, was the uncle of Catherine Howard who became Henry’s fifth wife in 1540.

• He was a fierce rival of Thomas Cromwell and had ambitions of his own to become the king’s chief minister. Being a Catholic, the Duke of Norfolk was hostile to the Protestant cause

• The Duke of Norfolk hated Cromwell because:

  • Cromwell supported Protestant ideas

  • He was jealous of Cromwell’s rise from a humble background, in particular when he became an earl

  • Cromwell had such an influence over Henry. Seeing the failure of Anne’s marriage, Norfolk recognised his chance to stir things up and sour the relationship between Cromwell and Henry.

• The Duke of Norfolk:

  • Instructed his niece, Catherine Howard, to spread rumours about Cromwell, saying he was being inefficient in arranging the annulment of Henry’s marriage to Anne of Cleves

  • Claimed that the delay was because Cromwell wanted to introduce Protestantism to England against the king’s wishes.

What are the reasons for Cromwell's downfall?

The Duke of Norfolk - Cromwell from low birth
He was too Protestant
The failed marriage to Anne of Cleves

What monastery did Cromwell close down causing The Duke of Norfolk to dig up his ancestors.

Thetford Abbey

Which act of Parliament condemned Cromwell to death?

The Act of Attainder

Why did Henry make the decision to execute Cromwell- did he regret this

• He was under pressure from the Duke of Norfolk

• He was under pressure from the Church

• He was under pressure from the court.

• Ill-health made Henry bad tempered and led him to make hasty decisions

• In 1541, Henry claimed he had been deceived by his courtiers and regretted the death of his ‘most faithful servant’.