Psychology Research Methods and Perspectives Flashcards

A complete set of 70 vocabulary flashcards covering psychological perspectives, research methods, biases, measures of validity and reliability, ethics, and basic statistics based on the lecture transcript.

Evolutionary Perspective

A psychological perspective focused on how natural selection has caused certain traits to emerge in a population, including adaptation, selective adaptation (survival of the fittest), and offspring survival.

Biological Perspective

A psychological perspective focused on how genetic and biological processes influence experiences and behavior, including brain structures, heritability, hormones, neurotransmission (neurochemicals), and human thought or behavior.

Humanistic Perspective

A psychological perspective focused on how to meet human needs so that individuals may reach their full potential, emphasizing free will, potential for growth, unconditional positive regard, and acceptance.

Sociocultural Perspective

A psychological perspective focused on how situations, environments, and cultures shape thinking and behavior, including family/media influence, group interactions, impact of society, and religion/values.

Behavioral Perspective

A psychological perspective focused on how individuals learn to respond to stimuli in their environment, emphasizing observable behavior, rewards/punishments, and stimulus and response.

Cognitive Perspective

A psychological perspective focused on how individuals think, remember, analyze, and interpret the world, including perception, memory, thinking, and problem-solving.

Psychodynamic Perspective

A psychological perspective focused on how unconscious thoughts and feelings drive behavior, including defense mechanisms, fixations, psychosexual stages, and childhood trauma or past experiences.

Id

In psychodynamic theory, the concept representing unconscious thoughts and feelings associated with the inner child.

Ego

In psychodynamic theory, the concept representing the person balancing unconscious thoughts and feelings with reality.

Superego

In psychodynamic theory, the concept representing the internal standards that function to make an individual fit with other people.

Hindsight Bias

A cognitive bias in which people believe that they knew something was going to happen after it had already occurred, even if they didn't actually predict it beforehand.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias occurring when people have too much faith in their own judgements or abilities.

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions, but rather examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Barnum Effect (Forer Effect)

A phenomenon in which individuals give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality specific to them that are in fact vague and general.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables or the outcome of a research study in psychology.

Operational Definition

A precise description that specifies how a researcher will measure and manipulate variables in a study.

Replication

The process of repeating or reproducing a research study to determine if its findings can be consistently observed.

Descriptive Methods

Research methods that simply describe and report behaviors.

Correlational Methods

Scientific methods used in psychology to examine the relationship between two or more variables by observing naturally occurring associations without manipulating variables.

Experimental Methods

A research technique used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables by closely controlling the environment and inputs.

Case Study

A research method in psychology involving an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method in psychology where researchers observe and record behavior in real-world settings without intervention or manipulation.

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by question as a representation.

Cross-Sectional Data Collection

A data collection strategy where researchers study many people at one point in time to gather lots of data efficiently and capture a wider sector of the population.

Longitudinal Data Collection

A data collection strategy where researchers study fewer people over an extended period of time to measure changes over time.

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an underrepresented sample.

Correlation

Indicates the possibility of a cause-effect relationship between variables but does not prove such a relationship.

Causation

A measure of the extent to which two variables change together and thus how well either variable predicts each other.

Scatterplot

A visual representation used in correlational research to display the relationship between two variables.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure used in correlational research to quantify the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship between variables.

Experiment

A research method that manipulates variables to uncover their effects, serving as the only method that can establish causation.

Experimental Groups

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, which is one version of the independent variable.

Control Groups

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment, contrasting with the experimental group and serving as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Random Assignment

A research method used to assign participants to different groups in an experiment randomly.

Within-Subjects Design

An experimental design in which all participants take part in all conditions of an experiment.

Between-Subjects Design

An experimental design that involves randomly allocating participants to different conditions.

Placebo Effect

An experimental effect evaluated by administering a placebo to one group of participants while the other group receives the actual treatment being tested.

Independent Variable

The variable that the researcher deliberately changes or manipulates in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is observed and measured for changes in an experiment.

Confounding Variables

Variables that were not accounted for or controlled in a study but still affect the results.

Observer Error

Mistakes or biases made by the person conducting, measuring, or recording data in a study.

Participant Error

Variations or mistakes introduced by the human subjects taking part in research.

Administrative Error

Procedural or logistical mistakes made in managing, executing, or processing a study.

Construct Validity

How accurately the measurement reflects the desired trait or concept.

Content Validity

How thoroughly the measurement addresses all elements of the desired construct.

Predictive Validity

How well the measurement can predict future abilities or scores on related tests.

Test-Retest Reliability

A form of reliability demonstrated when a participant who completes the task multiple times provides similar results each time.

Inter-Rater Reliability

A form of reliability demonstrated when multiple evaluators all measure the outcome the same way.

Split-Half Reliability

A form of reliability demonstrated when different halves of the same test yield similar results.

Informed Consent

An ethical standard requiring researchers to obtain participant agreement before involvement, ensuring participants have the right to withdraw at any time without penalty.

Confidentiality

An ethical principle requiring researchers to handle sensitive data and personal information obtained during a study with the utmost discretion.

Debriefing

Providing participants with comprehensive information about the true nature, purpose, and procedures of a research study immediately after their participation.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Committees responsible for reviewing and approving research proposals to ensure that they meet ethical standards and protect the rights and welfare of research participants.

Protect Participants from Harm

The obligation of researchers to minimize risks and ensure the well-being of research participants throughout the study process.

Confirmation Bias

A bias in research where the observer pays more attention to details that support their prior theory or expectations.

Observer-Expectancy Effect

A bias in research where the observer unintentionally influences the participants' behavior.

Demand Characteristics

A participant bias where the participant tries to give "good" data in response to research cues.

Social Desirability Bias

A participant bias where the participant tries to "look good" to others.

Double-Blind Study

A research design where both the participants and the researchers conducting the study are unaware of who belongs to the experimental or control group.

Single-Blind Study

A research design where participants are unaware of whether they belong to the experimental or control group, but the researchers conducting the study are aware.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistical methods used for describing and summarizing collected data, such as mean, median, mode, range, and standard deviation.

Inferential Statistics

Statistical methods used for making inferences and predictions about the general population, such as $p$ values.

Bar Graph

A graph representing discrete, separate categories using spaced-out bars.

Histogram

A graph representing a continuous distribution of numerical data divided into intervals, with no spaces between the bars.

Skew

A statistical measure that assesses the asymmetry of a probability distribution around its mean.

Statistical Significance

Indicates that a research result is not due to random chance, occurring when $p < 0.05$ or when the control group and experimental group differ by more than $2$ standard deviations.