16. Pressures on the USSR

The Khrushchev era

Despite attempts at revolution and reform in Poland, Hungary and East Germany, the Khrushchev era was seen as allowing for differentiation within communism.
As long as countries remained loyal to the USSR (by staying in the Warsaw Pact and maintaining their status as a single party state), modifications in the nature of communism were allowed.

What was one reason why Khrushchev conflicted with Mao Zedong?

Chinese communism demanded a more orthodox, unitary approach in comparison to Khrushchev's modifications of communism allowed in the Eastern sphere of influence.

What is the Brezhnev era defined as?

A time where the USSR reasserted itself as the leader of the communist world.

What was to be repressed in Brezhnev's USSR?

Dissent was to be repressed both within the USSR and in Eastern Europe, and force would be used, if necessary, to keep countries in the Soviet orbit.
These policies initially backfired, and between 1964 and 1968 there were movements in most of Eastern Europe demanding changes in leadership and policies.
Such movements always existed among the intellectual class, nut continued economic deprivation and lack of consumer goods led the working class to join these movements.

October 1964

Leonid Brezhnev's leadership of the USSR begins

January 1968

Alexander Dubcek is appointed leader of Czechoslovakia.

April 1968

Dubcek's Action programme is announced.

August 1968

Soviet troops and tanks move into Prague

November 1968

The Brezhnev Doctrine is clarified

March 1969

Sino-Soviet border fighting

Who was appointed General secretary as Interim measure upon Khrushchev's resignation in 1964?

Brezhnev.
He quickly consolidated power. His regime was interested in stabilising the Soviet Union, both domestically and internationally, but was associated with corruption and stagnation.
Economic stagnation and political repression continued and discontent arose, not just in the USSR but in Eastern Europe as well.

What did Brezhnev see as necessary for Soviet prosperity?

A stable Eastern Europe.
He believed that economic progress was the key to stability in the Eastern Bloc countries, as material improvements tended to lead to a decline in protest, and so he focused on strengthening their economies.

What had Czechoslovakia historically been?

A relatively prosperous member of the Eastern Bloc.

When was negative growth recorded in Czechoslovakia?

1963

What did the economic downturn lead Czechoslovakia to reconsider?

Its relationship to socialism and the Communist party, which was a source of inefficiency and corruption.

What was Moscow's perspective on the Czechoslovak government?

That it had been a loyal satellite state and it supported the Party officials until it appeared that the country might revolt against them.
Signs of revolt began in the 1960's.

An influential Czechoslovak economist, Professor Ota Sik, did what?

He proposed reforms to the planned, command economy.

What were the proposed Czechoslovak reforms:

- an end to centrally planned economic targets for the whole country
- allowing individual enterprises to function
- a Communist Party that would be responsive to public opinion
- the existence of consumer rights
- the workforce having more power, for example, workers could replace factory managers

What did Sik argue for in 1966?

Political reform as it was clear the Communist Party was not going to allow the proposed changes to take place which he saw as the only possibility for economic improvement.

Who was Sik's argument gaining popularity with?

First with intellectuals and students, and then with the wider public, so the USSR felt that changes had to take place in Czechoslovak leadership to maintain the communist government.

In January 1968, who was the Czech party leader replaced with?

Antonin Novotny was pressured into resigning by the USSR and was replaced by Alexander Dubcek

Alexander Dubcek

Trusted by Brezhnev to manage limited reform and stabilise Czechoslovakia. He failed to achieve Brezhnev's purpose and in April 1969, he was removed from office

Why did the Soviets appoint Dubcek?

He appeared to be a typical party bureaucrat and he was a Slovak, so the Soviets were hoping that he would appeal to that minority and prevent protest.
In reality, he turned out to be a charismatic advocate of political reform.

What did Dubcek call for?

A 'true invigoration and unification of all constructive and progressive forces in our Republic.'
He also stated that there must be 'a new start to socialism.'
He quickly began to replace key officials with those who wanted reform, without consulting the soviets.

Did the Kremlin take immediate action?

No but the Kremlin was watching Czechoslovakia very carefully.

Dubcek's reforms

Eliminated press censorship, & according to hard-line communists across Eastern Europe such as Eric Honnecker, he therefore exposed Eastern Europe to the possibility of 'democratic infection.'

What did Dubcek's reforms coincide with?

The growing student discontent in Poland, and the phrase 'Poland awaits her own Dubcek' echoed across the land.

Dubcek's Action Programme

April 1968: it stated the Communist Party's determination to achieve socialism according to a basic freedom of speech, press and movement - including travel to Western countries,
formal recognition of Israel,
freedom for economic enterprises to make decisions based on consumer demand rather than government targets,
increased rights of autonomy for the politically repressed Slovak minority.

The role of the Communist Party in Dubcek's government:

The Communist Party would retain its 'leading role' but it would acknowledge the legitimacy of non- party associations, such as the Club of Non-Committed Party Members (KAN) and Club k-231.

Club k-231

An organisation made of former political prisoners.

What did Dubcek do to try and protect his reforms?

Assured Moscow that Czechoslovakia would remain loyal to the Warsaw Pact.

The Prague Spring, 1968

The Action Programme also called for a shift in economic priorities away from heavy industry and towards consumer goods.
The recognition of civil liberties and personal freedoms was also demanded.
This period was referred to as the Prague Spring because of the sense of renewal in Czechoslovakia.

What did reformers do when there was no clear opposition to the Action programme?

They ended all press censorship, planned to open borders with the West and even began discussions on a trade agreement with West Germany, all while maintaining that Czechoslovakia was a loyal member of the Socialist order and only wanted to implement liberalisation within the Communist framework.

What did the Warsaw Pact countries attempt to do in order to intimidate Dubcek?

They conducted military exercises in Czechoslovakia in late June 1968. They held a meeting of the leaders of the USSR, Bulgaria, East Germany, Hungary and Poland on 14-15 July & expressed their concerns regarding Czechoslovakia's reforms.

The subsequent Warsaw letter from the Warsaw Pact to Czechoslovak officials

They summarised Czechoslovak's right to internal self determination but also argued that challenges to socialism within one country were a threat to the entire socialist movement and should not be tolerated, as they could lead to a split in socialist unity, both internally and externally.

What happened at the end of July 1968?

Brezhnev and Dubcek had the last of 6 meetings regarding the actions of Czechoslovakia. The Soviets were hoping to provoke a split within the Czechoslovak Communist party, and that a Pro-Soviet group would emerge that could then ask the Warsaw Pact to provide military assistance to maintain order.

What did Brezhnev do with the talks with Dubcek?

Pressured Dubcek to repeal the reforms, but despite promises to do so, Dubcek continued his liberalising path.

When did the Warsaw Pact forces invade Czechoslovakia?

20 - 21 August 1968

Did the Warsaw Pact face international action?

No. The loudest complaints came from within the communist camp and there were some protests in China and Romania against the invasion.

What did the USSR violate by invading Czechoslovakia?

The sovereignty and integrity of Czechoslovakia. The invasion appeared to undermine any possibility that change could be achieved through party - led reform.

The Brezhnev Doctrine, 1968

The Brezhnev Doctrine was a Soviet foreign policy that proclaimed any threat to socialist rule in any state of the Soviet Bloc in Central and Eastern Europe was a threat to them all, and therefore justified the intervention of fellow socialist states.

What continued to happen despite the Brezhnev Doctrine?

Thousands of Czechoslovaks demonstrated on the streets of Prague in late 1968. The Soviets found it difficult to find members of the Czechoslovak Communist Party willing to take control of the regime therefore Dubcek remained in power until April 1969.

The new Czechoslovak government

Conformed to the new Soviet line and remained in power until the collapse of Communism in 1989.
It was dependent on a continued Soviet military presence to retain its power, and the Red Army remained in Czechoslovakia until 1990.

When was the Sino - Soviet alliance defunct by?

Formed in 1950 and ended by 1962

What did the Sino-Soviet alliance represent?

Global communist unity but between 1958 and 1962, tensions rose between Khrushchev and Mao

Mao and the USSR

Mao felt that his position as senior communist stateman was not respected by the Soviets, accused Khrushchev of revisionism, especially with regard to his attempts at peaceful coexistence.

Revisionism

In the communist world, this was a disparaging term used against government or individuals who were seen as deviating from the revolutionary path of socialism, usually towards the adaptation of socialist policies.

What was Khrushchev's opinion on the communist world?

That as the leader of the first communist state, he should be leader of the communist world.

Khrushchev's actions that worsened Sino - Soviet relations:

- indirectly supported India in its border disputes with China in 1959
- withdrew technological aid from the Chinese by removing Soviet experts in 1960
- refused to fulfil his agreement to provide a prototype atomic bomb, in addition to undermining China's embryonic nuclear programme
- did not notify China of his decision to place nuclear missiles on Cuba in 1962

What did Mao do to worsen Sino - Soviet relations?

- provoked the USA through bombing the Taiwanese - held islands of Quemoy and Matsu in 1958
- criticised Khrushchev for being unwilling to use nuclear weapons
- criticised Khrushchev for removing the missiles in Cuba as a betrayal of the Cuban revolution

What was the Chinese perception of Khrushchev's policies?

That he had abandoned the struggle against capitalist imperialism and moved towards peaceful coexistence with the West. In July 1963, talks between China and the USSR broke down.

What did China call for as a result of the breakdown of Sino-soviet relations?

The return of territory that it claimed the USSR had occupied historically, particularly parts of Siberia.
Khrushchev rejected this out of hand, but his resignation in October 1964 put it in the hands of Brezhnev.

What did Brezhnev want for sino - soviet relations?

He initially advocated for a restoration of positive relations with China. This was motivated, in part, by the USA's growing involvement in the Vietnam conflict.
Brezhnev believed that the USSR and China had to resolve their differences and support North Vietnam in opposition to 'US Imperialism'
A representative was sent to China to establish a degree of unity

The Malinovsky incident

At Sino - Soviet talks held in Moscow in late 1964, the Soviet Defence minister, Malinovsky, suggested to a Chinese delegate, Marshal He Long, that the Chinese should get rid of Mao just as the USSR had removed Khrushchev. The talks immediately collapsed despite Soviet apologies. The rift between the two sides widened.

What was the Chinese claim that the USSR were bending towards revisionism refuted by?

The Soviet government's new proposals to China. In April 1965, the USSR requested a meeting with both China and North Vietnam to develop a collective response towards the USA's escalation of the war.

How was the proposal of the USSR, China and North Vietnam met by China?

It was met by resistance from China and the meeting never took place. Mao wanted North Vietnam to remain dependent on China, and he did not want to facilitate any more Soviet involvement in the Vietnam War than he had to.

What did the USSR propose doing in Southern China?

Establishing a Soviet air force base at Kunming.
Its purpose was to station 12 MiG-21 fighter planes in order to protect the Sino- Vietnamese border against any possible US aggression.

How did China view the proposal of a Soviet air force base at Kunming?

As a Soviet military intrusion on its territory. Mao was obsessed with the idea that the USSR was a military threat to China thus to his regime.
He believed that the USSR was a revisionist state that had attempted to reconcile its ideological differences with the USA.
For Mao, the USSR was an imperialist state and Chinese territory was part of its imperialist targeting.

The Cultural revolution

In 1966, Mao embarked on the Cultural Revolution as a reaction to what he saw as a drift away from the ideological purity of the Chinese revolution that he had led.

What was the Cultural revolution designed to do?

Restore ideological correctness and identify ideological deviants.
The Cultural Revolution enabled Mao to strengthen his own power, by justifying the elimination of potential political rivals on the grounds that they were revisionists.

What was the Soviet dimension in the Cultural Revolution?

The Chinese rhetoric was that the USSR was led by revisionists and was a target for ideological attack.
Mao used the frenzy displayed by his enthusiastic young followers in the Chinese Red Guard to intimidate the USSR.

Where was the USSR dimension in the Cultural Revolution most graphically illustrated?

When the Soviet Union's embassy in Beijing was besieged by a Red Guard mob, led by a 16 year old girl. The mob even threatened to burn the embassy down. The Sino- Soviet split gained momentum.

What did the USSR decide to do in the face of increasing hostility from China?

The USSR stationed military forces in Mongolia and eastern Kazakhstan in February 1967.

How did Brezhnev sum up foreign policy towards China?

At a key party meeting in June 1969, Brezhnev said 'we assume that the stronger the defence of our borders, the less danger there is of a really serious military confrontation on our eastern frontiers.'

The impact of the build up of Soviet forces on the Sino-Soviet frontier

Alarmed the Chinese and reinforces their view that the USSR intended to attack.
China adapted a strategy they termed 'active defence' based on limited aggression designed to deter any Soviet initial aggression.

When was the Chinese 'active defence' activated?

2 March 1969,when a Soviet border patrol near Zhenbao Island in eastern USSR was ambushed by Chinese forces.

The second Sino- Soviet border incident

Took place along the Xinjiang region in August 1969. Although talks were held in Beijing in September to reassure both sides that neither country wanted war, Mao was still insecure.

What did the Sino - Soviet border talks fail to do?

Bring about any substantial improvement in Sino - Soviet relations which were hostile by 1970. It was at this point that Mao began to move towards establishing a form of rapport with the USA

What was the fundamental reason for the Sino - Soviet division?

The shared ideological foundation of the two sides: there was conflict between perceptions of Marxist orthodoxy and revisionism.
China would always be the junior partner and they resented this. The USSR took this as a perfectly acceptable norm and had no regard for China's position.

What did Deng Xiapong, leader of China between 1979 and 1992, later comment:

'The basic problem was that China was not treated as an equal and felt humiliated.'
China wanted to be a global superpower and the Sino - Soviet alliance was not contributing to that end.