The 80/20 Sociology CLEP Review

Auguste Comte

Founder of sociology; known for positivism and the scientific study of society.

Karl Marx

Developed conflict theory, emphasizing class struggle between the bourgeoisie and proletariat.

Emile Durkheim

Focused on social integration and studied suicide; known for the concept of anomie.

Max Weber

Introduced the concept of verstehen and bureaucracy; known for the Protestant Ethic.

C. Wright Mills

Known for the concept of sociological imagination.

George Herbert Mead

Founder of symbolic interactionism; emphasized self-development.

Charles Horton Cooley

Known for the concept of the looking-glass self.

Functionalism

The perspective that views society as interconnected parts working together for stability and order.

Conflict Theory

Perspective that views society as being in competition for scarce resources, emphasizing inequality and power.

Symbolic Interactionism

Focuses on everyday interactions and the meaning of symbols in face-to-face behavior.

Independent Variable

The cause in a research study.

Dependent Variable

The effect in a research study.

Correlation

When two variables move together.

Causation

When one variable causes another.

Reliability

The consistency of a measure.

Validity

The accuracy of a measure.

Survey

A research method effective for large populations.

Experiment

Research method that establishes cause-and-effect relationships.

Participant Observation

Research method providing rich detail through immersion.

Case Study

In-depth understanding of a single case.

Secondary Analysis

Analysis of existing data collected for other purposes.

Material Culture

Physical objects that are part of a culture.

Nonmaterial Culture

Ideas and values that are part of a culture.

Norms

Expected behaviors within a society.

Folkways

Minor norms, such as saying thank you.

Mores

Serious norms, such as incest taboo.

Values

Shared standards of what is important in a culture.

Cultural Relativism

Judging a culture by its own standards.

Ethnocentrism

Judging a culture by your own standards.

Agents of Socialization

Forces that influence personality and behavior: family, school, peers, media, religion.

Looking-Glass Self

Cooley's theory that involves imagining how others see us.

Preparatory Stage

Mead's first stage of self-development, focusing on imitation.

Play Stage

Mead's second stage of self-development, engaging in role play.

Game Stage

Mead's third stage of self-development, understanding multiple roles.

Primary Groups

Groups characterized by close emotional relationships, like family and close friends.

Secondary Groups

Groups that are goal-oriented, such as workplaces.

In-group

'Us'; a group with which a person identifies.

Out-group

'Them'; a group with which a person does not identify.

Reference Group

A group used for comparison.

Deviance

Violation of societal norms.

Crime

Violation of laws.

Merton’s Strain Theory

Theory explaining different responses to blocked opportunities.

Conformity

Adhering to societal norms.

Innovation

Finding new methods to achieve goals despite barriers.

Ritualism

Adhering to societal norms while losing sight of goals.

Retreatism

Rejecting both societal goals and means.

Rebellion

Challenging societal norms and goals.

Labeling Theory

Theory suggesting society labels individuals, leading to deviance.

Differential Association

Theory stating criminal behavior is learned through social interaction.

Social Stratification

The ranking of individuals in society.

Social Mobility

Movement within the social hierarchy.

Vertical Mobility

Movement up or down the social hierarchy.

Horizontal Mobility

Status changes without a change in rank.

Achieved Status

Status earned through effort, like being a doctor.

Ascribed Status

Status assigned at birth, like race or gender.

Race

A socially constructed category based on perceived physical traits.

Ethnicity

Shared cultural heritage among a group.

Prejudice

An attitude towards individuals based on their group membership.

Discrimination

Behavioral actions taken against individuals based on group membership.

Sex

The biological classification as male or female.

Gender

The social roles and expectations associated with being male or female.

Feminist Theory

Focuses on analyzing gender inequality in society.

Nuclear Family

A family unit consisting of parents and children.

Extended Family

Family that includes relatives beyond the nuclear unit.

Endogamy

Marriage within a particular group.

Exogamy

Marriage outside of a specific group.

Monogamy

Being married to one spouse.

Polygamy

Being married to multiple spouses.

Bureaucracy

A system characterized by hierarchy, rules, specialization, and impersonality.