Epistemology study guide

Define Epistemology

The study of knowledge

What are two reasons that epistemology matters?

Humans may think they (have knowledge) but in reality, it is just belief. If we are studying knowledge, we are studying the truth.

Define knowledge.

Knowledge is a true and justified (w/evidence) belief.

Define belief.

A statement that someone thinks is true.

Define a statement/claim.

A sentence that is either true or false.

Define truth.

A statement that corresponds to reality.

Define evidence.

Any information that indicates a statement is true.

Define proof.

Lots of evidence

Why is the study of knowledge so important?

Because we humans are never (rarely) 100% certain.

What are the four standards of evidence?

• Above 50% (preponderance of the evidence)

• 75% (clear and convincing evidence)

• 90% (proof beyond reasonable doubt)

• 100% (absolute certainty)

What standard of evidence is used in:
- Civil cases
- Criminal cases

• Preponderance of evidence (50% or more)

• Proof beyond a reasonable doubt (90%)

Jack has clear and convincing proof that Jill murdered his dog. Will he win the criminal case?

NO! C&C not enough evidence (75%). Must have proof beyond a reasonable doubt (90%)

How often do courts reach “absolute certainty”?

How often do courts reach “absolute certainty”?

Who is the father of Modern philosophy? We are studying one of his texts, what is it called?

• Descartes

• Book of meditations

What does Descartes’s first meditation argue?

We do not know anything for certain.

What is Descartes’ Method of Doubt?

A way of searching for certainty by doubting and questioning every reality. Asking oneself: “Is there ANY way that I may be mistaken in my belief?”

What are Descartes’ Two Skeptical Hypotheses concerning his method of doubt?

You may be dreaming
You may be controlled by an evil demon.

What does Descartes’s second meditation argue?

There is only one statement that he has found to be for sure true. “I think, therefore I am.”

What is skepticism according to Descartes in the First Meditation?

Skepticism is the theory that nobody knows anything for sure.

According to the four standards of evidence… Are all opinions equal?

No, as some opinions have more evidence. Thus, some opinions are more truthful.

According to the four standards of evidence… Is evolutionary theory just a theory?

No, because some theories have more evidence than others. Evolutionary Theory is much closer to truth.

Who said: “[a human] is capable of rectifying his mistakes, by discussion and experience. Not by experience alone. There must be discussion, to show how experience is to be interpreted.” -Explain “experience” in this context. -Explain “interpretation” in this context.

John Stewart Mills
Experience refers to observations
Interpretation refers to theories.

What is The Undetermination of Theory?

There are many theories to one observation

In regards to The Undetermination of Theory what do Empiricists emphasize: Rationalists emphasize:

Empiricists emphasize experience and thus observations.
Rationalists emphasize interpretation and thus theories.

How do humans get knowledge according to empiricists and rationalists?

Empiricists: The theory that the primary source of knowledge is sensory experience.

Rationalists: The theory that the primary source of knowledge is reason/intellect.

Explain the example of “other animals” regarding truth.

Sugar tastes different to different animals and thus there is no reason that humans are right about how sugar tastes.

What are the three aspects of the “Pain Analogy?” What is this analogy arguing?

object outside of mind-> nerve-> pain

Tastes/sounds are similar to pain in that they are all experiences that only exist within your mind after a nerve is stimulated.

What are the two views in regards to hearing a sound when a tree falls in the forest?

• If you define sound as airwaves then a tree made sound when it fell

• If you define sound as auditory experiences no sound is made since nothing was around to hear it fall.

What are “ad hoc modifications?”

Additions to a theory that save the theory from being falsified/refuted/disproven.

What is Ockham’s Razor?

He argues that the simplest theory is the best as it’s not legitimate to add unnecessary entities. (Good theories do not have unnecessary entities)