ETHICS - Kantian Ethics

Kant on reason

Reason is "the moral law within me"

Kant's book

Critique of Practical Reason

Kant on consequences

They subordinate your humanity to some other objective. You are a means to the end of that objective.

Kant on duty/intention

We have an intrinsic duty to everyone, to act morally irrespective of consequences.

"Good will shines like a precious Jewel" where good will is the desire to do "duty for duty's sake"

Duty can be worked out using reason.

Hypothetical Imperative

A command to achieve a desired result, based on an assumption. If X, then Y.

It has no use as a moral law, it's dependent on outcome and not connected to the actual morals of an action.

Categorical Imperative

A command to do actions that are good in themselves, regardless of consequences, universally. Do Y out of duty.

CI 1: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law"

CI 2: treat humans "as an end" in themselves, never "as a means only"

Eg shopkeeper analogy: the good shopkeeper is honest because it's his duty, no other reason (Groundwork of Metaphysics of Morals)

CI 3: the kingdom of ends: act in accordance with a society where everyone is treated as ends and with laws universalised

Two ways in which a maxim fails universalisation

1. Contradiction in conception: the situation is self-contradictory, eg stealing (the concept of ownership disappears)

2. Contradiction in will: the situation is so bad that it cannot be rationally willed. Eg the maxim that no one helps anyone else in need.

Kant on lying

It's ALWAYS wrong. It's treating people as an object by denying them their ends.

You are responsible for all consequences of the lie - you're placing yourself above the person you're lying to.

However, often there are conflicting duties (enquiring murderer): must distinguish the lesser evil (Peter Rickman, Having Trouble with Kant)

Summum Bonum

Supreme good that we pursue through moral acts. Doing duty for duty's sake.

Must be possible in the afterlife.

Three Postulates

1. Freedom - freedom to choose moral law over desire. The "highest degree of life" (Lectures on Ethics)

2. Immortality - a perfect future, Summum Bonum (the kingdom of ends). Doing the right thing in this life might cause unhappiness. So we can instead achieve happiness in the afterlife.

3. God - even though his theory seeks not to start with God, some elements seem to imply it: eg happiness beyond death, created as rational beings

In following the categorical imperative these three are being accepted.

Perfect/Imperfect duties

Bible quote on intentions, interior/exterior

1 Sam 16: "man looks at the outward appearance but God looks at the heart"

Mackie's criticism of Kant

CI is actually an "implied hypothetical": based on the assumption that everyone is equal. (Inventing Right and Wrong)

Criticism of Kant's separation of consequences and actions

They are inherently linked. Shooting arrow at a target vs shooting arrow at a human: clearly not the same action. Can't be separated.