Found 1.2 (2222)

Types of Hydrocarbons

Alkane

Alkene

Alkyne

Aromatic

• Alkane

  • Carbon—Carbon single bonds

• Alkene

  • Carbon—Carbon double bond

• Alkyne

  • Carbon—Carbon triple bond

• Aromatic compounds

  • Functional group → Benzene Ring

  • Can have single/double bond

Functional Groups Based on Water

Alcohol

Phenol - ex

Ethers - ex

• Alcohols

  • R-O-H = hydroxyl group

  • Hydrogen atom directly bonded to oxygen

  • Aromatic alcohol → phenols

    • Propofol = 2,6-diisopropylphenol

    • 12 carbon atoms = low water solubility → suspended

• Ethers

  • R-O-R’

  • Functional group = oxygen bridge b/w 2 alkyl groups

  • Halogenated ethers used in anesthesia replaced by halogens

Halogenated Ethers VISUAL

Amines - ex

Imidazole - ex

• Functional groups derived from ammonia (NH3)

• More water soluble than other groups w/ hydrogen bonds

• DNA synthesis/transcription

• Many medications

  • Ketamine, dopamine, epinephrine, serotonin

• Imidazole

  • 5-membered ring making up many drugs (midazolam)

Carbonyl Functional Groups

Aldehydes

Ketones - ex

Carbon double bonded to oxygen

• C needs two more bonds for octet (usually functional groups)

• Aldehydes

  • CG + alkyl group & H+

• Ketones

  • CG + 2 alkyl groups

  • Most common → acetone (sweet odor)

  • Progesterone, oxycodone, methadone, etc.

Other Carbonyl Functional Groups

Carboxylic Acid

Esters

Amides

• Carboxylic Acid

  • Hydroxyl group bonded to CG

• Esters

  • Alkoxy group bonded to CG

  • Condensation product b/w carboxylic acid & alcohol

• Amides

  • Nitrogen atom bonded to carbonyl group

  • Condensation product b/w carboxylic acid & alcohol

Carbohydrates

Functions: Rapid energy/ATP, energy storage, cell structure and recognition

Formula → (CH₂O)_n

Ex. Polyalcohol aldehydes or ketones

Saccharides - 4

ex

• Monosaccharides

  • Simple sugars

  • Glucose is most common

• Disaccharides

  • Mono + mono (bound by glycosidic bonds)

  • Sucrose, Lactose, Fructose

• Polysaccharides

  • Chain of many monos

  • Starches, cellulose, and glycogen

• Oligosaccharides

  • Chain of 2-10 monos

Glycoproteins - 3 ex

• Sugar + protein via glycosylation

• Functions

  • Protective structure

    • Cell wall structure, GI mucus

      • Erythrocyte surface recognition—ABO blood group

      • Connective tissue—collagen

  • Inactive Form

    • Coagulation (prothrombin, thrombin, & fibrionogen) - enzymes

Gluconeogenesis

reactants 3

where

stim

• Creating new glucose from non-carbs (glucose new)

  • Lactic acid (normal, exercise)

  • Amino acids (muscle, amine)

  • Glycerol - last to be used (starvation)

• Occurs primarily in the liver

• Stim by Cortisol = protein breakdown & deamination into glucose

Glycogenesis vs Glycogenolysis

where

stim

• Glycogenesis (glycogen generate)

  • ↑ serum glucose + insulin = glycogenesis

  • Stored in liver & muscle

  Glycogenolysis (glyco break)

  • Liver stim by glucagon = Increases serum glucose

  • Muscle stores stim by Epi release only within muscle cells

Lipids

fxn

type? ex

• Hydrophobic = organic soluble

• Composed of nonpolar hydrocarbon functional groups + few polar functional groups

• Fxn: Energy storage, cell membranes, signaling

• Saponifiable: Contain hydrolyzable ester bonds

  • Triglycerides, phospholipids, waxes

• Nonsaponifiable: Lack hydrolyzable ester bonds

  • Steroids, prostaglandins, vitamins A, D, E, K

Triglycerides - 2(2)

make up

• Have 3 fatty acid residues esterified to glycerin backbone

• Fatty acids

  • Long-chained carboxylic acids w/ an even number of carbon

  • Saturated fatty acids → only have carbon-carbon single bonds

  • Unsaturated fatty acids → contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond

    • Monounsaturated → one carbon-carbon double bond

    • Polyunsaturated → 2+ carbon-carbon double bonds

Phospholipids - 2

make up

• Like triglycerides except 1 fatty acid replaced by phosphate ester group

• Common in cellular membranes b/c of their surfactant properties

  • Head = Polar (Hydrophilic) phosphate group

  • Tail = Lipid, Non-polar, Hydrophobic

Steroids

make up

prime ex - 2 types

• Characterized by three 6-membered rings fused to a 5-membered ring

• Cholesterol

  • Essential in cell membranes

  • Transported as lipoprotein, proteins are denser than lipids

    • High-density lipoprotein → greater protein-to-lipid ratio

    • Low-density lipoprotein → lower protein-to-lipid ratio

• Estrogen & Testosterone

Prostaglandins - 3

ex

Powerful, but short-lived, lipid hormones

Synthesized from arachidonic acid on demand through COX

• NSAIDs inhibit COX

Affects inflammatory response, gastric protection and renal flow

Metabolism - 3 key players

• Acetyl coenzyme A (A.CoA)

  • Shuttles carbon from glucose & FA metabolism into the Krebs Cycle

• Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺)

  • Oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction = NADH → feeds into electron transport chain to bulk produce ATP

• Coenzyme Q (QH)

  • Reduced form = QH₂

  • Precursor of FADH

Glycolysis - 3

aerobic - 2

anaerobic - 2

where for all of them

• In cytoplasm glucose → converted into 2 pyruvic acid molecules, 2 ATP, 2 NADH

• Aerobic metabolism in Mitochondria

  • 2 pyruvic → 2 A.CoA + 2 NADH

  • Energy byproducts:

    • 2 ATP

    • 4 NADH (gives e^- to O₂ to form H₂O)

    • 2 Acetyl CoA

• Anaerobic metabolism in cytoplasm

  • With no O₂ do donate e^-, pyruvic acid accepts instead → Lactic acid

  • Energy byproducts:

    • 2 ATP

    • Lactic acid

      
      

Lipolysis - 3

Beta Oxidation - 4

• Lipolysis in cytoplasm = Triglyceride → glycerol + 3 fatty acids

  • Glycerol go to liver for glycolysis or gluconeogenesis

  • Activation: fatty acids + 2 atp + A.CoA = 18 carbon fatty A.CoA w. carnitine shuttle

• Beta Oxidation in mitochondria

  • For 18 carbon fatty A.CoA will yield after 8 rounds:

    • 9 A.CoA (final round makes 2)

    • 8 NADH

    • 8 QH₂ (FADH₂)

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) - 4

in matrix of mitochondria

A.CoA + oxaloacetate → citrate → 1 atp + 3 NADH + 1 QH₂ + 2CO₂ + oxaloacetate

A.CoA consumed per cycle until gone

CO₂ expelled into ECF

Oxidative Phosphorylation - 8

at the inner mitochondrial membrane

Electron Transport Chain (ETC) - creates gradient

NADH & QH₂ accumulated under redox rxn releasing e^- and H⁺

Oxygen is the final acceptor of the e^- and turns into water

H+ flows through and comes back to create ATP

Creating:

• 28 vs 113 ATP

• NAD⁺ & Q⁺ (missing H)

• Water

FINAL ATP Diagram

Proteins - 6

• Stereocenter

  • Amine = NH2

  • Carboxylic acid = COOH

  • alpha carbon =

  • Hydrogen

  • R - group (20 different ones)

• Proteins link together via peptide bonds of COOH and NHH → H₂O

Protein Structure 1 & 2 - 3

Protein Structure 3 & 4 - 4

Denaturation - 4

• Unraveling proteins (lose 3D shape)

• Caused by detergents, temperature, changes in pH

• pH range = 7.0 -7.7

• 6℃ ↑ in body temp can be fatal

Enzymes are? 2

• Globular Proteins (catalysts) End in ”-ase”

• Enzyme-Substrate Specificity Models

  • Lock-and-Key Model

    • Rigid active sight

      • High specificity

  • Induced-Fit Model

    • More flexible active sight

    • Some enzymes catalyze multiple substrates

Nucleic Acids - 2 ex

• Nucleosides

  • Sugar + nitrogenous base

  • DNA

• Nucleotides

  • Nucleoside + phosphate ester group joined by phosphate ester linkages

  • ATP

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) - 2

• Double-stranded alpha helix found in nucleus bounded via hydrogen bonds

• 4 nucleoside bases

  • Adenine = Thymine

  • Guanine = Cytosine

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) - 2

Matches DNA inversely

• 4 nucleoside bases

  • Adenine = Uracil

  • Guanine = Cytosine

Translation - 1

Messenger RNA (m-RNA)

RNA polymerase “unzips” DNA, terminator sequence at the end forms a hairpin loop

Synthesized single chain of nucleotides in nucleus from DNA

Carry DNA-coded instructions into cytoplasm for Protein synthesis

Transfer RNA (t-RNA) - 2

Translation - 3

Codon: 3-base pair of m-RNA

• start codon is AUG

• stop codon is UAG, UGA, UAA

Anticodon: 3-base sequence = specific amino acid

Peptide bonds formed cost ATP

Goes to ER and Golgi after