PSYC 3404 Unit 1 - Joana Weaver Northeastern University

The 7 themes

1. How do nature and nurture shape development? (nature and nurture)

2. How do children shape their own development? (the active child)

3. In what ways is development continuous, and in what ways is it discontinuous? (continuity/discontinuity)

4. How does change occur? (mechanisms of change)

5. How does sociocultural context influence development? (the sociocultural context)

6. How do children become so different from one another (individual differences)

7. How can research promote children’s well being? (research and children’s welfare) 

epigenetics

 the study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment

methylation

biochemical process that reduces expression of many genes and is involved in regulating reactions to stress

• Shows how early experiences and behaviors are important 

  • Strong correlation between stress of mother and child and how much methylation in cord blood DNA of newborns have (increased when mom is depressed)

continuous v discontinuous argument

continuous - tree continues to grow

discontinuous - phases like cocoon to butterfly

stage theories

propose development occurs in a progression of distinct age related stages 

• Changes the way they experience the world

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

development of thinking and reasoning

• Birth to adolescence

• Moving away from such sudden changes we now think about them as gradual 

the three mechanisms of change

behavioral, neural, genetic

behavioral mechanisms of change

mathematical development improved strategies

neural mechanisms of change

inc interconnection between frontal cortex and intraparietal sulcus

genetic mechanisms of change

presence or absense of specific alleles

effortful attention

is developed via brain activity, genes, and learning experiences 

• Includes voluntary control of one’s emotions and thoughts 

active system consolidation theory

posits that two interconnected brain areas (hippocampus and cortex) include new info during learning at the same time 

• Hippocampus learns details after 1 or 2 experiences

• Cortex learns general patterns over many experiences

  • Older kids and adults have hippocampal memories replayed during sleep which allows opportunities for the cortex to extract general patterns from memories stored in hippocampus 

sociocultural context

physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model

Posits that people and places most important to a child - looks at education system, religious institutions sports leagues, and social organizations

cross cultural comparison

assessment of factors that influence psychological, sociological, or cultural similarities and differences

culmulative risk

the disadvantages that play into difficulties with development 

• Obstacles and life circumstances 

4 factors that can lead children to turn out differently than others

1. Genetic differences

2. Differences in treatment by parents and others

   1. Associated with the differences in children's characteristics 

   2. Varies with the way the children also interpret the treatment

3. Differences in reactions to similar experiences

4. Different choices of environments 

   1. As well as labels and cliques 

reliabilities

Interrater reliability: when different raters agree 

Test retest reliability: if a child gets the same or similar results each time

validities

Internal validity: when we can say that the test conditions produced what was observed

External validity: when we can generalize the results beyond the current research

interviews

Ask questions irl or in a questionnaire. Wants to know a specific structured event

clinical interviews

flexible and allow for more of an in depth understanding of what happened to the specific kid

naturalistic observations

Observe childrens activities in 1+ everyday settings are observed

structured observation

Specific situation is arranged in a lab that kids interact with. It is designed to elicit a specific behavior that is relevant to the hypothesis

correlation designs

try to determine whether children who differ in one variable also differ in predictable ways to other variables

correlation does not equal causation

1. Direction of causation problem: correlation does not indicate which variable is the cause and which variable is in effect 

2. Third variable problem: correlation between two variables may actually be the reason for some third unspecified variable

Experimental groups and control groups help determine….

the specific experiences participants have in the study 

cross sectional studies

Children of diff ages are studied at a single time

longitudinal studies

Children are examined many times over a long period of time

microgenetic studies

Children are observed intensively over a relatively short period while a change is occurring

epigenesis

emergence of new structures and functions during development

process of conception

1. Egg goes from ovary to fallopian tube

2. During sex, egg released and sperm enter vagina

3. High failure rate due to genetics or other defects

gametes have ___ the amount of genetic material other cells have

half

sex differences

• Males: sperm carry Y

  • Higher c section rate and rate of developmental disorders 

• Females: eggs carry X

  • Higher risk for culturally approved infanticide and pre implantation sorting/selection the sociocultural context

studies with male female birth rates

More male newborns are born than female despite male fetuses being more susceptible to spontaneous abortion in beginning and end 

Less female fetuses survive past early gestation 

Men deal with more fetal distress and in many places infant mortality is higher for them 

germinal, embryonic, and fetal weeks

1. Conception to 2w

• Begins w conception and lasts til zygote becomes implanted in uterine wall. Rapid cell division

2. 3-8w

• Organ and system implantation. Dev occurs via the 4 dev processes

  3. 9-birth

     • Dev physical structures. More behavior, sensory experience, and learning 

once conceived a woman has ____ the eggs you will have for life

all

4 processes help turn a zygote to an embryo then a fetus

Mitosis - cell division

Cell migration is movement of new cells away from origin

• Neurons start deep in embryonic brain and develop out 

Cell differentiation - at first, cells can become many different types of cells in the body but as they are divided more they become specialized 

• Location with chemical and cell to cell contact influences gene expression 

Death - apoptosis 

• Fingers are made by death of cells between ridges of the hand plate 

hormones that influence development

Androgens and Glucocorticoids

androgens

hormones that lead to male genitalia, without them female genitalia is developed 

• The male fetus itself is the source of androgens

  • Fetus influences its own development = active child

Glucocorticoids

limit fetal growth and help tissue mature 

• Towards end of gestation, more of this hormone is present so that lungs can me matured 

fetal experience and movement

• Burping reflex prepares fetus for eventual nursing 

• Swallowing is another important reflex

  • Tongue movement promotes normal development of the palate 

• Amniotic fluid going through the body helps the digestive system mature 

• Fetal breathing prepares for breathing post birth 

  • Starts at 10 weeks 

fetal experience and course themes

The prenatal experience shapes development nature and nurture  

The fetus participates in a contributes to its own development via the formation of organs and muscles that depend on fetal activity active child 

Despite different environments (discontinuity) fetuses and children show surprising similarities (continuity)

fetal experience and touch

• Grasping the umbilical cords 

• Rubbing their faces and sucking their thumbs 

• Fetal heart rate responds to maternal movements by full term 

  • Vestibular system - sensor in ear provides info about movement and balance 

fetal experience and sight

Process visual info and like face-like stimuli

fetal experience and taste

Amniotic fluid has flavors and fetuses show preferences toward sweeter ones 

fetal experience and smell

• A fluid has odors from what mothers eat - come into contact with fetus odor receptor with fetal breathing 

Phylogenetic continuity: humans share many characteristics and development processes with nonhuman animals due to shared evolutionary history

fetal experience and hearing

• Can hear mom’s heartbeat, blood flow, breathing, and talking 

  • Shown that they hear talking from mom because heart rate changes she starts talking 

• In last trimester, they can hear mom or dads voices and can hear music and speech

behavioral cycles

• Rest active cycles 

  • When mom is active baby rests when mom tries to rest baby is active

  • Emerges at 10 weeks and becomes stable by second half of pregnancy

• Circadian rhythms

  • Near end of pregnancy the fetus sleep and wake states are similar to those of newborns 

fetal learning - (dis)habituation

• Habituation: decreased response to repeated or continued stimulation 

  • Starts at 30 weeks 

    • Fetuses learn repetitive words and melodies but get bored of them

    • Evidence of learning and memory 

      • Food preferences and learning moms voice 

• Dishabituation: when stimulus becomes interesting again 

miscarriage facts

Most miscarried are before woman knows she is pregnant

15-25% of pregnancies are miscarriages in the US

• Could be about 50% of pregnancies

Teratogens and how influential they are

are harmful environmental agents 

• most damaging during sensitive period when major organs are vulnerable 

• Duration and amount are important 

  • Dose response relation the greater the exposure the more likely to be damaged and the more severe the damage 

  • Fetal programming is effects of the prenatal experience that “program the physiological set points that will govern physiology in adulthood”

• Individual differences in genetic susceptibility may lead to triggering problems they are predisposed to 

thalidomide (teratogens)

was a drug prescribed for morning sickness but lead to many limb deformities in the babies when taken during weeks 4-6 (period when the limbs were developing)

• Had a cumulative effect

other known teratogens

• Drugs - birth defects and fetal death 

• Antidepressants  - unclear 

• Opioids - influence brain development and can have babies with addictions 

• Marijuana - issues with attention, impulsivity, learning, and memory 

• Cocaine: cognitive and social deficits 

• Cigarettes  - slowed growth and low birth weight, lower IQ, hearing issues, ADHD, and cancer 

  • Example of dose response relationship 

• Alcohol - fetal alcohol spectrum disorder birth defects 

  • Leads to Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder 

• Environmental pollutants - low birth weight and small heads 

  • Example of dose response relationship 

• Disease 

  • Rubella

  • STIs can damage CNS: CMV, genital herpes, HIV infections, AIDs

  • Infections like the flu may lead to schizophrenia

Sudden infant death syndrome 

syndrome were babies seem normal but between 2-5m go to sleep healthy and wake up dead 

Smoking or letting the baby sleep with anything that could cover their breathing holes increases risks

maternal factors

• Age: 23-29 is ideal

  • In teens high death rate and in 40s+ high autism rate 

• Nutrition

  • General malnutrition of mother affects growth of fetal brain; later cognitive impairments 

    • Spina bifida and neural tube defects 

• Disease 

• Maternal emotional state 

  • Changes their hormones and growth factors 

  • Stress can be harmful

Cephalocaudal development

head before body hands before feet development

zygote implants after ____ days

10

birth takes place after ____ weeks

40 - normally

why study development

raising children, social policies, understanding human nature

periods of development - prenatal

conception to birth

periods of development - infancy and toddlerhood

birth-2 years old

periods of development - early childhood

2-6 years old

periods of development -middle childhood

6-11 years old

periods of development - adolescence

11-18 years old

periods of development - early adulthood

18-40 years old

periods of development -middle adulthood

40-65 years old

periods of development - late adulthood

65-death

domains of development

physical, cognitive, emotional and social

sequential studies

many similar cross sectional or longitudinal studies are conducted at varying times

to increase likelihood of accurate court testimonies from kids, children should be asked ________

unbiased questions

nativists believe

we have capabilities present starting at infancy

empiricists believe

infants have general learning mechanisms that allow them to learn a lot quickly

philosopher’s views on child development

Plato: self control and discipline are most important to education

Aristotle: discipline and meeting individual children’s needs are important to education

Locke: parents control the dev of their kids and must help them grow their character

Rousseau: children mainly learn from experience not teachers or parents

Darwin’s baby biography was

one of the first methods for studying children

neural tube

forms early brain and spine

amniotic sac

where fetus floats and develops

placenta

structure that provides oxygen and nutrients, and removes waste

fraternal twins are caused by

two eggs being fertilized

identical twins are caused by

one egg being split down the middle

kohlberg believed

that the development of ethical principles and morality is an ongoing process with distinct stages that take place throughout one's lifetime

• most moral development occurs through social interaction

milestones

*** not sure if we need to know these but included incase

• first words: 7-12m

• sit up: 6m

• roll: 6m

• crawl: 7-12m

• walk: 10-18m

at what age do babies receive their mother’s antibodies?

36 weeks

the embryonic stage is from ___ to ___ weeks

3-8