theories test accumulated

What are the 3 domains of development?

• Biological (genetics, brain, body changes)

• Cognitive (thinking, memory, language)

• Socioemotional (emotion, personality, relationships)

6 Characteristics of Life-Span Development

1. Lifelong

2. Multidimensional

3. Multidirectional

4. Plastic

5. Multidisciplinary

6. Contextual

Age-graded influences

Events tied to age that are predictable.
Examples: puberty, starting school, menopause.

History-graded influences

Events tied to a specific generation.
Example: economic recession, pandemic.

Non-normative influences

Unusual life events.
Examples: serious illness, winning lottery.

Nature vs Nurture

genetic inheritance vs environmental experiences
modern view = interaction of both

Freud’s theory focus

Psychosexual stages
Personality formed by age 5
Unconscious drives shape behavior

Erikson’s theory focus

8 psychosocial stages
Development across entire lifespan
Crisis at each stage

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems

Microsystem – immediate environment
Mesosystem – interaction between microsystems
Exosystem – indirect influences
Macrosystem – culture
Chronosystem – time & life transitions

Cross-sectional study

Different age groups studied at same time.

Longitudinal study

Same individuals studied over time.

Sequential study

Combines cross-sectional & longitudinal.

Genotype vs Phenotype

genetic makeup vs observable traits

Gene × Environment interaction

Genetic predisposition interacts with environmental factors.

Epigenetics

Environmental influences alter gene expression without changing DNA.

Germinal period

First 2 weeks after conception
Zygote forms and implants.

Embryonic period

2–8 weeks
Organ formation (organogenesis)
Highest vulnerability

Fetal period

2 months to birth
Rapid growth & brain development

Teratogen

Harmful environmental agent.
Examples: alcohol, nicotine, drugs.

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

Caused by alcohol exposure.
Facial abnormalities, brain damage, learning problems.

Cephalocaudal pattern

Development from head → toe.

Proximodistal pattern

Development from center → outward.

Synaptogenesis

Formation of neural connections.

Synaptic pruning

Elimination of unused connections.

Myelination

Coating of axons → faster neural transmission

Rooting reflex

Infant turns head toward cheek touch

Moro reflex

Startle response; arms fling outward.

Sensorimotor stage

Jean Piaget
Birth–2 years
Learning through senses & movement.

Object permanence

Understanding objects exist even when unseen (~8–12 months)

Habituation

Decreased response to repeated stimulus.

Babbling

Repetition of consonant-vowel sounds (4–6 months).

Two-word stage

Around 18–24 months.
Example: “Mommy go.”

Temperament

Early behavioral style; biologically based

Goodness of fit

Match between child temperament & environment.

Secure attachment

Mary Ainsworth
Explores freely, upset when caregiver leaves, comforted upon return.

Avoidant attachment

Little distress when caregiver leaves; avoids on return.

Resistant attachment

Very distressed; not easily comforted

Disorganized attachment

Confused, inconsistent behavior

Social referencing

Infant reads caregiver’s emotional cues

Preoperational stage

Jean Piaget
2–7 years
Symbolic thinking but not logical

Egocentrism

Inability to see another’s perspective

Conservation

Understanding quantity stays same despite appearance change

Animism

Belief that inanimate objects have feelings

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Lev Vygotsky
Range between what child can do alone and with help

Scaffolding

Support provided by more skilled partner

Fast mapping

Linking new word with concept after minimal exposure

Initiative vs Guilt

Erik Erikson
Children assert power through play & exploration

Authoritative parenting

High warmth + high control.
Best outcomes.

Authoritarian parenting

Low warmth + high control.
Obedient but lower self-esteem

Permissive parenting

High warmth + low control.
Poor self-regulation.

Neglectful parenting

Low warmth + low control.
Worst developmental outcomes

Preconventional morality

Lawrence Kohlberg
Morality based on punishment & reward.

concrete operational stage features

Logical reasoning about concrete events, conservation, classification.

metacognition

thinking about thinking

2 main types of intelligence

fluid→ prob solving

crystalized→ knowledge

neuro improvements for middle/late childhood

prefrontal cortex→ planning and decision making

examples of learning disabilities

dyslexia, dysgraphia

industry vs inferiority

Erikson, developing competence through mastering skills

self concept vs self esteem

concept→ more realistic, social comparison

esteem→ self worth

peer relations and friendship

Social interactions that shape development and identity

Characterized by trust, intimacy, and mutual support

conventional morality

Focus on rules, laws, and social approval

prosocial behavior

Voluntary actions to help others

Family Influence

Provides support, discipline, and role modeling

puberty

Rapid physical maturation driven by hormonal changes

primary vs secondary sex characteristics

prim→ Reproductive organs directly involved in reproduction

secondary→ Physical traits not directly tied to reproduction

menarche

first period

spermarche

first ejaculation

limbic system

Brain area linked to emotions and reward

formal operational stage

ability to think abstractly and hypothetically

imaginary audience

belief that others are constantly concerned about u and watching

risk-taking bx

Increased due to emotional brain dominance

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Developing a stable sense of self

identity diffusion

No commitment, no exploration

identity foreclosure

commitment without exploration

identity moratorium

active exploration without commitment

identity achievement

commitment after exploration

adolescence independence and autonomy

increasing, separating from parents→ reduced emotional reliance

romantic relationships

Exploration of intimacy and identity

parent-adolescent conflict

increase in disagreements, but also growth through communication and problem solving

post conventional mortality

Moral reasoning based on abstract principles

adolescent mental health concerns

Anxiety, depression, stress during identity formation

early adulthood

late teens-30s, focus on independence to peak performance

physical performance in early adulthood

peak, max strength, reaction time, and endurance

lifestyle factors in early adulthood

behaviors, diet, sleep, substance abuse, sexual activity (STI’s), fertility at peak, brain dev refined to prefrontal cortex

thought process in early adulthood

postformal thought→ more practical, flexible, and realistic (beyond Piaget)

dialectical thinking→ ability to consider multiple viewpoints and contradictions

intimacy vs isolation

forming close relationships vs experiencing loneliness

Sternberg’s triangular theory

passion→ physical attraction and sexual desire

intimacy→ emotional closeness and connection

commitment components→ decision to maintain relationship long term

attachment styles

secure→ comfortable with closeness and independence

avoidant→ discomfort with closeness’ values independence

anxious→ fear of abandonment, seeks reassurance

relationship circumstances

marriage→ socially recognized union bw partners

divorce→ legal ending of marriage

cohabitation→ living together without marriage

emerging adulthood

transitional phase (18-25) with exploration and instability

career development in early adulthood

establishing a career and financial independence

middle adulthood age range

40-65

common physical changes in middle adulthood

Declines in strength, metabolism, vision (presbyopia), and hearing.

menopause

The cessation of menstruation, typically in late 40s–early 50s.

andropause

Gradual decline in testosterone in men.

What happens to crystallized vs fluid intelligence?

Crystallized increases; fluid declines

expertise

high level of knowledge in specific domain

Eriskon stage for middle adulthood

generativity vs stagnation

generativity

contributing to future generations (parenting, mentoring)

stagnation

lack of purpose or contribution