Advanced Placement Psychology Unit 2: Biology & Behavior - Myers Psychology for AP 3rd Edition

sleep

a periodic, natural loss of consciousness — as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.) (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 231)

circadian rhythm

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 231)

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 232)

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 233)

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 233, 699)

hypnagogic sensations

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 233)

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 235)

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 244)

narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 245)

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 245)

dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 247)

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 251)

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 253)

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 254)

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 254)

depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 255)

stimulants

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 257)

cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant; produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 259)

hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 261)

THC

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 262)

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 81)

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 82)

dendrites

a neuron's often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 82)

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 82)

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 82)

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 82)

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 83)

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 83)

refractory period

(1) in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state. (2) in human sexuality, a resting period that occurs after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 83, 420)

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 83)

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 85)

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 85)

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 86)

endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 88)

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 88)

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 89)

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 91)

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 92)

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 92)

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 92)

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 92)

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 92)

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 92)

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 92)

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 93)

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 92)

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 93)

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 94)

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 95)

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 95)

pituitary gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 96)

lesion

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 98)

EEG (electroencephalogram)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 99)

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 100)

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 102)

medulla (medulla oblongata)

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 102)

thalamus

the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 102)

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 102)

cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 103)

limbic system

neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 104)

amygdala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 104)

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 104)

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 106, 340)

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 109)

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 109)

parietal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 109)

occipital lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 110)

temporal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 110)

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 110)

somatosensory cortex

an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 113)

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 116)

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 120)

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 121)

consciousness

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 123, 224)

heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 129)

environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 129)

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 130)

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 130)

identical (monozygotic) twins

develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 131)

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 132)

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity). (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 137)

epigenetics

"above" or "in addition to" (epi) genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 137, 668)

natural selection

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 14, 141)

opiates

Incude drugs such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

Spans an extensive portion of the brainstem. Its fundamental role is regulating arousal and sleep−wake transitions.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints.

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Nature

the innate, presumably genetically determined, characteristics and behaviors of an individual.

Nurture

he totality of environmental factors that influence the development and behavior of a person, particularly sociocultural and ecological factors such as family attributes, parental child-rearing practices, and economic status.

depolarization

a reduction in the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a cell, especially a neuron, such that the inner surface of the membrane becomes less negative in relation to the outer surface.

resting potential

the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a neuron when it is in the nonexcited, or resting, state.

Eugenics

a social and political philosophy that seeks to eradicate genetic defects and improve the genetic makeup of populations through selective human breeding.

multiple sclerosis

a disease of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) characterized by inflammation and multifocal scarring of the protective myelin sheath of nerves, which damages and destroys the sheath and the underlying nerve, disrupting neural transmission.

Dopamine

neurotransmitter that has an important role in motor behavior and is implicated in numerous mental conditions and emotional states.

Norepinephrine

neurotransmitter and hormone produced mainly by brainstem nuclei and in the adrenal medulla. (Also called noradrenaline.)

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter. It is synthesized from the amino acid glutamic acid.

Glutamate

predominant excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. It plays a critical role in cognitive, motor, and sensory functions.

substance P

a neurotransmitter that plays a role in the modulation of pain, stress, and inflammation

leptin

hormone that communicates to the brain the amount of body fat stored and regulates food intake. Regulates hunger by providing a feeling of satiety or increases hunger when body fat is reduced.