Comparative Politics Review

What is race?

idea that human beings are divided into different groups, often thought of as biological categories, usually based on skin color

What is ethnicity?

quality that one has by identifying with or being a member of an ethnic group

What is national identity?

an identity that locates one’s social position in relation to national membership

Civic vs. ethnic nationalism

Civic: “western” based on shared political values- UK US

ethnic: “eastern” based on ancestry, culture, or ethnicity- Germany Russia

(CON) Primordial bonds

nations are imagined kinship groups like any others (“big family”) and nationalism is a collective identity

evolution encourages the development of such identities

(CON) perennialism

nations have deep historical roots, but evolve

(CON) modernism

Nations are modern constructs created by capitalism, state-building, and mass education

individualistic nationalism

national identity and loyalty should align with liberal values like individual rights, freedom, and self-determination

collectivistic nationalism

the nation is seen as a supreme collective entity, prioritizing the state's interests, unity, and power over individual rights

(CON) structural forces

social structures (capitalism) give rise to nationalism

(CON) political institutions

the state is a leading political institution that created nations

(COENC) Primordial bonds

groups that feel their identity is under threat are likely sources of conflict

(COENC) Cultural boundaries

types of boundaries between groups contribute to likelihood of conflict

conflict may be more likely between certain groups

ethnic nationalists

(COENC) Material Interests

ethno-national identity is used as an instrument for purposes like gaining power/ accessing resources

(COENC) Rational Calculation

rational choices of actors explain presence or absence of ethno-national conflict

Gender vs. $eX

gender- socially/culturally constructed

$eX- biological

Gendering

cognitive and social processes that assign masculine or feminine traits, roles, and meanings to people, objects, or concepts

Social movement mobilization

social movements are often the force that bring about social change, thus transforming public attitudes about a group

What is a legislative quota system?

A policy reserving seats for underrepresented groups (e.g., women, minorities).

What is political culture?

Shared values, beliefs, and norms about politics

What is an ideology?

A set of coherent political ideas about government, society, and economics

Liberalism

emphasizes individual freedoms, representative democracy, and the market economy

Fascism

authoritarian ideology of favoring militarism and right-wing nationalism

anti-democratic

emphasis on state & nation rather than individual rights

Socialism

emphasizes economic equality, to be pursued through state action

group over individual

advocates proletarian revolution

Difference between religion & ideology?

Religion is faith-based and spiritual; ideology is political and secular (usually).

Secularization

process through which societies become less religious, often as they become more modern

Lay state vs. Religious state

Lay state: establish a formal separation of religion & public life

Religious state: religion is a key part of official politics

Modernization theory

secularization is expected in modern societies

Religious economies approach

demand for religion is constant, religiosity depends on religious “market”

Institutional theories

societies differentiate as they modernize

more complex societies develop more varied institutions and takes the role from religion

Contention

the pursuit of collective goods largely outside of formal political institutions

Social vs. political revolutions

Social: Deep transformation of society + regime.
Political: Regime change but less social transformation.

Social movement

ongoing organized collective action oriented toward a goal of social change

Iron Law of Oligarchy

Organizations tend to become dominated by a small leadership elite.

Insurgency

A civil war or armed rebellion against the state.

Terrorism

A tactic that involves violence directed at non-military targets

Everyday resistance

resistance without organizational resources or capacity to solve collective action problems

work stoppages, boycotts, banditry

Rightful resistance

innovative use of laws to defy “disloyal” political & economic elites

Theoretical explanations for contention

• Relative deprivation: Revolution driven by frustration.
• Political opportunity: Revolutions occur when conditions allow.
• Resource mobilization: Access to resources enables action.
• Rational choice: Individuals weigh costs/benefits of participation.
• Cultural framing: How movements construct meaning.

Types of party systems

Dominant party: China & North Korea

Two-party: US

Multiparty: Germany

How to calculate the effective number of parties

take the proportion of seats held by each party, square each one, add them up, and then take the inverse

What shapes party systems?

electoral rules, geography, history, economy, ideology, ideas

What does Duverger’s Law state?

District systems favor 2-party systems

Proportional representation favors multiparty systems

What is a political party?

political organizations that seek to influence policy by getting candidates and members elected to office

Main types of political parties

elite, mass, catch-all

What is a party system?

patterns of party politics characterized by the number of relevant parties in a country

What are interest groups?

organizations that make demands in political systems on behalf of their constituents and members

Pluralism

groups compete openly to influence government policy

no specific groups have official preferential access

Corporatism

certain major groups are officially designated as representatives of certain interests

have more structured interaction with the government in power

What is a welfare state?

states that provide safety net for the most vulnerable groups of the population, often through offering social insurance, public health care plans, and poverty relief

What is a modern state?

A political unit with a defined territory, population, bureaucracy, and monopoly on legitimate violence

key functions of the modern state

Security, rule of law, taxation, administration, and public goods provision

Liberal welfare state

minimal government role

market-oriented policies

US

Corporatist/ continental welfare state

state helps families unable to succeed in market

to preserve status hierarchy

medium inequality/de-commodification

Germany

Social democratic welfare state

state provides comprehensive social services

strong social safety net

low inequality

Scandinavian countries

What are the theories explaining the emergence of the welfare state?

cultural changes: people became more convinced over time that state could solve problems

industrial capitalism: emerging modern economy drove change & welfare states are reactions to some of these changes

mobilization and political action: specific actors and groups have a role to play in shaping welfare states

Problems with welfare states

high costs

demographic aging

dependency

globalization pressures

Head of Government vs. Head of State

Government = runs daily affairs; State = symbolic national leader.

Executive Powers

Formal (legal)

Presidential System

Separation of powers; fixed terms.

Parliamentary System

Fusion of executive and legislature; PM dependent on confidence.

Semi-Presidential System

President and PM share executive power.

Coalition Types

Minimum winning

Presidentialism vs. Parliamentarism

Presidential = stability but rigidity; Parliamentary = flexible but can collapse.

Legislature

Lawmaking body representing citizens.

SMD (Single-Member District)

One representative per district; usually favors large parties.

PR (Proportional Representation)

Seats distributed by vote share; favors smaller parties.

Closed-list vs. Open-list PR

Closed = party decides candidate order; Open = voters choose candidates.

Mixed System

Combines SMD and PR elements.

Representation Theories

Systems influence who gets represented and how effectively.

Democracy

Political system with participation

Direct Democracy

Citizens directly make political decisions.

Representative Democracy

Citizens elect representatives to govern.

Democratization

Process of transitioning to and consolidating democracy.

Modernization Theory

Economic development leads to democracy (education

Cultural Explanation

Civic culture and values of tolerance enable democracy.

International Factors

Global norms

Institutional Explanation

Strong institutions create checks and balance transitions.

Agency Explanation

Leadership and elite decisions can drive transitions.

Consolidation

When democracy becomes stable and accepted as the only legitimate form.

Communism

Ideology advocating classless society and collective ownership.

Marx’s Communism

Final stage after capitalism where exploitation ends.

Rise of Communist Regimes

Revolution by workers

Decline of Communism

Economic inefficiency

Communism Today

Exists in modified form (China

Constitution

Fundamental law defining structure of government and rights.

Constitutionalism

Limits on government power through rule of law.

Constitutional Design

Institutional arrangements (e.g. federal vs. unitary).

Judicial Review

Courts’ ability to strike down unconstitutional laws.

Federalism

Power shared between national and subnational governments.

Unitarism

Centralized authority with little autonomy for regions.

Effects of Federalism

Can protect minorities but may cause inequality or instability.

Authoritarian Regime

Limits political pluralism

Personalistic Dictatorship

Power concentrated in one individual.

Bureaucratic-Authoritarian

Rule by military or technocrats using bureaucracy.

Totalitarianism

Complete state control of society and ideology.

Theocracy

Rule by religious authorities under divine law.

Hybrid/Semi-Authoritarian

Mix of democratic and authoritarian traits.

Historical Institutionalism

Past institutions constrain present regime outcomes.

Poverty & Inequality (Regime Explanation)

Economic hardship undermines democracy