Comprehensive Psychology: History, Methods, and Key Theories

What is psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and mind.

What are the two main components of psychology?

Behavior (observable actions) and mind (subjective experiences like thoughts and emotions).

What is the purpose of studying psychology?

To identify the causes of behavior and mental processes, treat abnormal thought and behavior, and improve people's lives.

What are the three main types of psychologists?

Clinical Psychologists, Applied Psychologists, and Research Psychologists.

What philosophical questions did Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle raise?

Questions about the origins of knowledge and the laws governing sensation, perception, and learning.

What was Descartes' famous statement?

"I think, therefore I am."

What is dualism according to Descartes?

The belief that the mind is separate from the body and that the mind is immaterial.

How do modern psychologists view the relationship between mind and brain?

They believe the mind arises from brain activity, summarized by the phrase, "The mind is what the brain does."

What are the three sources of knowledge proposed in the notes?

Knowledge comes from a mysterious spiritual world, nature (innate), or nurture (learned).

What did Immanuel Kant argue about knowledge?

He argued that knowledge comes from nature.

What does Gestalt Psychology suggest about human perception?

Humans are born with a fixed way of viewing the world, but experience shapes how characteristics develop.

Who is considered the father of modern psychology?

Wilhelm Wundt.

What significant contribution did Wundt make in 1879?

He advocated for scientific techniques for studying mental processes at the University of Leipzig.

What is structuralism in psychology?

A school of thought that analyzes elements of sensations and feelings, pioneered by Wundt and Titchener.

What are the two techniques used in structuralism?

Mental chronometry (measuring time taken for mental processes) and systematic introspection (self-report by trained individuals).

What is functionalism?

A psychological approach that focuses on understanding mental processes by their purpose or goal, influenced by Darwin's work.

What did behaviorism reject?

The idea that the mind can be empirically studied.

Who is credited with the behaviorist approach?

John Watson.

What was Lightner Witmer's contribution to psychology?

He co-founded the APA and opened a psychological clinic in 1896 to make psychological theory more practical.

What is Freud's theory of psychoanalysis?

A theory suggesting that psychological problems are best solved through insight into the unconscious mind, which determines behavior.

What role do childhood experiences play in Freud's theory?

Many psychological problems arise from conflicts and memories outside of awareness, often rooted in childhood.

What did Skinner contribute to psychology?

He emphasized the importance of observable behavior and controlled experiments in psychology.

What is the significance of systematic introspection in psychology?

It was a method used to investigate consciousness and mental processes.

What significant treatment effects were observed in psychoanalysis according to the September 2008 Journal of AMA?

Psychoanalysis showed significant, large, and stable treatment effects, which increased between the end of treatment and follow-up assessment.

What are some mental health issues mentioned that psychoanalysis addresses?

Anxiety, Severe Depression, Borderline Personality Disorder, Anorexia Nervosa.

What are two criticisms of Freudian psychology?

It has a dark, pessimistic view of human nature and dismisses free will and the potential for growth.

Who are two key figures associated with humanistic psychology?

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

What is the core belief of humanistic psychology regarding human potential?

Humans have great potential for growth, and therapists should encourage this through nonjudgmental support.

What is meant by an eclectic approach in modern psychology?

It involves selecting or adopting information from many different sources rather than relying on one perspective.

How does clinical psychology apply the eclectic approach?

By choosing techniques according to client preferences and particular problems.

What major shift occurred during the Cognitive Revolution in the 1950s?

A shift away from behaviorism back to interest in internal mental processes.

What metaphor became significant for understanding the mind during the Cognitive Revolution?

Computers became a metaphor for the mind.

What model did Atkinson & Shiffrin propose in 1968?

A model about the difference between short-term and long-term memory.

What was the Clever Hans phenomenon?

A horse named Clever Hans appeared to answer questions through math and science, but it was later revealed he responded to unconscious cues from his owner.

What is the first step in the scientific method as described in the notes?

Develop a theory.

What is the purpose of operational definitions in psychological research?

To specify concepts in terms of measurements.

What is an example of a good operational definition?

Measuring stress through the amount of cortisol in a saliva sample.

What are the interrelated goals of psychological research?

To observe and describe behavior, predict behavior, explain behavior, and treat participants ethically.

What is naturalistic observation?

A technique for gathering information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments.

What are demand characteristics in psychological research?

Aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone wants or expects.

How can demand characteristics be reduced?

By ensuring participants' data are private and making them unaware that they are being observed.

What is the purpose of surveys in psychological research?

To gather a limited amount of information from many people, often in the form of a questionnaire.

What are potential problems associated with surveys?

Sample bias, inability to obtain in-depth information, and concerns about the accuracy of respondents' answers.

What is the definition of a population in research?

The group the researcher wants to learn about, such as United States residents.

What is a sample in the context of research?

The subset of the population chosen to participate in the survey.

What is random sampling?

A method where everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

What is the primary focus of case studies?

To gather extensive information on a single case, usually an individual.

What are two potential problems associated with case studies?

External validity (representativeness) and verification (truthfulness of the individual).

What do achievement tests measure?

Current level of knowledge or competence in a subject.

What do aptitude tests assess?

Potential for success in a given profession or area of study.

What do intelligence and personality tests evaluate?

An individual's ability or tendency to act in certain ways.

What is the correlation coefficient used for?

To summarize whether two measures vary together.

What does a positive correlation indicate?

As one measure increases, the other measure tends to increase as well.

What does a negative correlation indicate?

As one measure increases, the other measure tends to decrease.

What does zero correlation imply?

Knowing the value of one measure does not allow you to predict the value of the other measure.

What is causality in research?

The relationship where one variable influences another, often needing to account for third variables.

What is the purpose of experimental research?

To explain behavior by manipulating properties of the environment and observing effects.

What are the two groups in an experiment?

Experimental group (exposed to the independent variable) and control group (not exposed to the independent variable).

What is an independent variable?

The aspect of the environment that is manipulated or changed in an experiment.

What is a dependent variable?

The behavior that is measured or observed in an experiment.

What are confounding variables?

Uncontrolled variables that change systematically with the independent variable.

What is internal validity?

The extent to which confounding variables are controlled in an experiment.

What is random assignment?

Each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group of an experiment.

What is the purpose of inferential statistics in research?

To determine the probability of observing results under the null hypothesis.

What are some ways to reduce expectancy effects in research?

Misleading participants about the study's purpose, equating expectations, using placebos, and conducting single or double-blind studies.

What are the three pillars of ethical research?

Informed consent, debriefing, and confidentiality.

What are some ethical issues related to animal research?

Informed consent cannot be obtained, and it may involve injury or death to the animal.

What are ethical guidelines for animal research?

Proper care for animals and minimizing pain and discomfort.