Chapter 3: Biopsychology and Neurons

These flashcards cover key terms and concepts related to biopsychology and the workings of the nervous system as discussed in the lecture.

Biopsychology

The study of biological mechanisms that underlie behavior.

Genetics

The study of genes and how they affect physiological and psychological traits.

Theory of Evolution

The organisms that are better suited for their environment will survive and reproduce, while those that are poorly suited for their environment will die off.ment will die off.

Charles Darwin

English naturalist who proposed the theory of evolution through natural selection.

Genetic Variation

Genetic Differences among Individuals

Chromosome

Long chain containing DNA that hold genetic information in the form of genes.

DNA

Helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs

Gene

Sequence of DNA that contains the information to produce proteins and determine traits (eye color, hair color, etc).

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an individual, determining specific traits and characteristics, which is often contrasted with phenotype.

Phenotype

The observable physical and biochemical characteristics of an organism, determined by both genetic makeup and environmental influences.

Dominant allele

An allele that expresses its trait even when paired with a different allele.

Recessive allele

An allele that expresses its trait only when paired with another recessive allele.

Heterozygous

An organism with two different alleles for a specific gene, resulting in a mixed genetic expression.

Homozygous

An organism with two identical alleles for a specific gene, resulting in uniform genetic expression.

Punnett Squares

A diagram used to predict the probability of certain traits in offspring, based on the genetic makeup of the parents.

Epigenetics

The study of how the environment interacts with genes to influence behavior.

Range of Reaction

The theory suggesting that an individual's potential for a trait is influenced by genetics and environment, indicating that different environmental conditions can produce different outcomes for the same genotype.

Genetic environmental correlation

The concept that an individual's genes can influence the environment they are exposed to, and that this environment can, in turn, affect their phenotype. This interplay highlights the complexity of gene-environment influences on traits.

Neuron

A nerve cell that transmits messages throughout the body.

Glial

cells that support and protect neurons in the nervous system.

Dendrites

Branch-like extensions of neurons that receive signals from other neurons.

Myelin sheath

A fatty layer that insulates axons, increasing the speed of nerve impulse transmission.

Terminal button

The small swelling at the end of an axon that releases neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons. Also contains synaptic vesicles.

Axon

The long, slender projection of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body to other neurons or muscles.

Synapse

The space between two neurons where they get very close but don’t touch. Neurotransmitters are released to facilitate communication.

Synaptic vesicles

Membrane-bound sacs within terminal buttons that store neurotransmitters until they are released into the synapse.

Action Potential

an electrical signal that travels down a neuron's axon. It acts on an all-or- none principle (the incoming signal is either sufficient to reach the threshold of excitation or it is not; and thus the cell fires or it does not).

Depolarization

The process by which the membrane potential of a neuron becomes less negative (or more positive), reducing the difference between the inside and outside of the cell, typically leading to action potentials.

Hyperpolarization

The process by which the membrane potential of a neuron becomes more negative than the resting potential, increasing the difference between the inside and outside of the cell.

Threshold of excitation

The level of charge that causes a neuron to become active

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are absorbed back into the presynaptic neuron after being released into the synaptic cleft, thereby terminating their action.

Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger that transmits signals across a synapse.

Biological perspective on mental illness

A viewpoint that considers psychological disorders as products of imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, memory, and learning, playing a critical role in the autonomic nervous system.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter linked to pleasure, motivation, and reward pathways in the brain, also involved in motor control and regulation of mood.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that helps regulate mood, anxiety, and happiness, influencing sleep and appetite.

Psychotropic medication

Drugs used to treat psychiatric disorders by restoring neurotransmitter balance

Agonist

Drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter 

Antagonist

Drug that blocks or inhibits the activity of a neurotransmitter

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The part of the nervous system outside the central nervous system. It is made up of two parts which is the Somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

Somatic nervous system

nervous system controlling voluntary movements and sensory. It comprises the cranial and spinal nerves that transmit signals/info between the central nervous system and the muscles.

Autonomic nervous system

Controls internal organs and glands. Contains two systems that compliment each other to maintain homeostasis such as the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous system.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stress-related activities (fight or flight).

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for routine, day-to-day functioning (homeostasis).

Brain

The central organ of the nervous system, responsible for processing sensory information, regulating bodily functions, and enabling thought, emotion, and behavior. It is bilateral (two sided)

Spinal Cord

The main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous system, facilitating motor and sensory signals.

Lateralization

The tendency for certain cognitive processes and functions to be more dominant in one hemisphere of the brain than the other.

Left Hemisphere

The hemisphere of the brain typically associated with language, analytical thinking, and logical reasoning. It controls the right side of the body.

Right Hemisphere

The hemisphere of the brain generally associated with creativity, spatial ability, and intuitive thinking. It controls the left side of the body.

Gyri

The raised ridges or bumps on the surface of the brain that increase its surface area and accommodate more neurons.

Sulci

The grooves or fissures on the surface of the brain that separate the gyri and contribute to the brain's overall surface area.

Fissure/Deep Sulcus

A deep groove in the brain's surface that separates the brain hemispheres, playing a critical role in organizing neural functions.

Corpus Callosum

A large bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication between them.

Forebrain

The forebrain is the largest part of the brain, responsible for complex behaviors, cognition, and emotional regulation. It includes the cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and pituitary gland

Thalamus

The brain structure that acts as a sensory relay station (except smell).

Limbic system

Brain structures involved in emotion and memory.

Amygdala

A region of the brain involved in emotion regulation and processing, particularly fear and pleasure.

Hippocampus

A region of the brain associated with memory formation and learning.

Hypothalamus

A region of the brain that regulates various homeostaticfunctions. Links the nervous system and endocrine systems by controlling the pituitary glands

Pituitary Gland

An endocrine gland also know as “master gland” located at the base of the brain, responsible for hormone production and regulation of various bodily functions.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain involved in multiple higher-level functions, including sensory perception, cognition, and motor control. It includes the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, and occipital lobe.

Frontal lobe

The brain region associated with executive functions, motor control, and language.

The motor cortex

is the area of the brain (frontal lobe) responsible for planning, controlling, and executing voluntary movements.

Prefrontal cortex

is the part of the brain (frontal lobe) involved in complex behaviors such as decision-making, personality expression, and moderating social behavior.

Borca’s area

a region in the frontal lobe crucial for speech production and language processing.

Parietal lobe

The brain region involved in processing sensory and perceptual information.

Somatosensory cortex

is the area of the brain (parietal lobe) that processes sensory information from the body, including touch, temperature, and pain.

Temporal lobe

The brain region associated with hearing, memory, and language comprehension.

Auditory cortex

is the region of the brain in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information, including sounds and language.

Wernicke’s area

is a region in the cerebral cortex located in the left hemisphere, important for language comprehension and processing.

Occipital lobe

The brain region responsible for processing visual information.

Primary visual cortex

is the area of the brain located in the occipital lobe that is primarily responsible for processing visual information from the eyes.

Midbrain

Part of the brain involved in motor control and arousal.

Reticular formation

regulates arousal, sleep-wake cycles, motor activity, and attention/alertness (in midbrain)

Substania Nigra

A region of the brain (midbrain) that plays an important role in movement control and the reward system, particularly by producing dopamine.

Ventral tegmental area

Where dopamine is produced and associated with mood, reward, and addiction (in midbrain).

Hindbrain

The part of the brain responsible for automated processes such as breathing.

Medulla

Part of the brainstem that controls vital autonomic functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. (in hindbrain)

Pons

A part of the brainstem that connects the brain and spinal cord playing a key role in regulating brain acivity during sleep (in hindbrain)

Cerebellum

A structure located at the back of the brain (in hindbrain) that is responsible for coordinating voluntary movements, balance, and motor learning.

CT Scan

An imaging technique that uses x-rays to create detailed brain images.

PET Scan

An imaging technique that shows brain activity by monitoring blood flow.

MRI

An imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to produce brain images.

fMRI

Functional MRI that tracks changes in brain activity by measuring blood flow.

EEG

A method to record electrical activity in the brain using scalp electrodes.

Endocrine system

Glands that produce hormones to regulate bodily functions.

Thyroid

gland that regulates appetite, metabolism, and growth.

Adrenal gland

an endocrine gland that produces hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol, regulating stress responses and metabolism.

Gonads

the reproductive organs that produce gametes and sex hormones, influencing sexual development and reproduction.

Pancreas

an endocrine gland that produces insulin and glucagon, regulating blood sugar levels.

Gene x Environment Interaction

The interaction of genetic and environmental factors that influence traits.

Allele

A variation of a gene.

Heritability

The proportion of variation in a trait attributable to genetic factors.