PS276 Midterm 1 review

Age-graded change

Developmental changes that occur in a fixed sequence and are universal.

Periods of development

Prenatal (conception-brith), infancy (birth-18m), toddler (18m-3yrs), early childhood (3-5yrs), middle/late childhood (6-puberty), adolescence, young adulthood, (20-40), emerging adulthood (18-25) middle age (40-65), and old age (young old age: 65-80 and old-old age (80+).

Nature vs nurture

The debate about the relative influence of biological/genetic factors and environmental/experiential factors on development.

Active vs passive

The debate about whether individuals are shaped by external forces (passive) or have agency and control over their own lives (active).

Quantitative vs qualitative

The distinction between changes in amount/degree and changes in form/kind in development.

Continuous vs discontinuous

The distinction between development that occurs in a steady and smooth fashion vs development that occurs in start and stop fashion, in spurts

Continuity vs stability

The distinction between mean/average levels of development and rank order or relative standing of individuals.

Folk psychology

Personal experience-based knowledge and understanding of human behavior and development.

Scientific knowledge

Knowledge and understanding of human behavior and development based on research and evidence.

Observation

The method of collecting data by directly observing behavior or phenomena (diaries, naturalistic, structured, by self/others)

Questionnaires

A data collection method that involves asking participants to respond to a set of structured or open-ended questions (pioneered by Stanley Hall)

Correlational studies

Research studies that examine the relationship between variables and determine the strength and direction of the association.

Experimental studies

Research studies that manipulate variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical measure that describes the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1.

Sequential design

A research design that combines elements of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs by selecting different age groups over time.

Pubertas

The Latin term for puberty, which refers to the period of maturation and sexual development.

Endocrine system

The system of glands that produce, circulate, and regulate hormones in the body.

Hormones

Chemical substances produced by the endocrine glands that regulate various bodily functions and processes.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons

Neurons in the hypothalamus that are activated by certain pubertal hormones and play a role in the onset of puberty.

Androgens

Sex hormones, such as testosterone, that are higher in females following puberty.

Estrogens

Sex hormones, such as estradiol, that are higher in males following puberty.

Adrenarche

The maturation of the adrenal gland that takes place during adolescence.

Cortisol

A hormone produced during times of stress.

Kisspeptin

A brain chemical believed to trigger the onset of puberty.

Epiphysis

The closing of the ends of bones, which terminates the growth spurt after the adolescent growth spurt is complete.

Secondary sex characteristics

Physical manifestations of sexual maturity that develop during puberty, such as breast development, facial/body hair growth, and voice changes.

Tanner stages

A system used to describe the five stages of pubertal development.

Menarche

The first occurrence of menstruation in females.

Precocious/delayed

Terms used to describe individuals who experience puberty outside the average ages.

Pheromones

Chemicals secreted by animals that stimulate behaviors in other members of the species and may play a role in pubertal maturation.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt over time.

Delayed phase preference

A sleep pattern characterized by later sleep and wake times, often observed during puberty.

Basal metabolism rate

The minimum amount of energy used by the body during a rest state.

Body mass index (BMI)

A measure of body fat calculated by dividing weight by height squared.

Pseudomature

A term used to describe individuals who wish they were older, spend time with older peers, are less involved in school, and focus more on their peers.

Puberty complex

The period of development during which adolescents experience physical and hormonal changes.

Primary sex characteristics

Sex organs needed for reproduction that develop during puberty.

Secondary sex characteristics

Physical manifestations of sexual maturity that emerge during adolescence and serve as signals to potential mates.

HPG (Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal) axis

A feedback loop that regulates levels of androgens and estrogen during puberty.

Menarche

The onset of menstruation in females.

Leptin

Proteins made by fat cells that signal the body's readiness for reproduction.

Melatonin

A hormone that regulates sleep and can influence the timing of puberty.

Secular trend

The decline in the age of first menstruation and reaching puberty earlier over the past two centuries due to improved nutrition and health.

Maturity gap

The discrepancy between biological changes during puberty and other domains of development, such as cognitive and social.

Moodiness

Fluctuations in mood often associated with adolescence, but not directly caused by hormones.

Emotional arousal

Increased emotional sensitivity and desire for rewarding activities during puberty.

Maturational deviance hypothesis

The idea that early maturing girls may experience more stress and negative outcomes due to standing out from their peers.

Developmental readiness hypothesis

The theory that early maturing girls may struggle with the changes of puberty because they have not yet developed the necessary coping skills.

Counterfactually

thinking not only about how things are, but what they might’ve been

Metacognition

process of thinking about thinking about self

Adolescent egocentrism

extreme self-absorption, often a consequence of too much thinking about thinking

Imaginary audience

brought on by the heightened self-consciousness of early adolescence, that everyone is watching and evaluating one's behavior

Personal fable

belief you are unique and therefore not subject to rules that govern others

Cognitive-developmental view

Developmental perspective based on work of Piaget. Takes on a qualitative, stage-theory approach

Information-processing perspective

from study of AI and attempts to explain cognitive development in terms of the growth of specific components of the thinking process (such as memory)

Selective attention

we focus on one stimulus while tuning out another

Divided attention

paying attention to two or more things at once

Working memory

aspect of memory where information is held for a short period

Long-term memory

gives you ability to recall something from a long time ago

Autobiographical memory

recall of personally meaningful past events

Reminiscence bump

fact that experiences from adolescence are generally recalled more than other stages of life

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging fMRI

to get images of the brain while subject is performing some mental task

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

used to produce images of the brain that show connections among different regions

Neurons

electrical signals transmission across circuits (cell body, axon, dendrite)

Synapse

gap between neurons, where neurotransmitters carry electrical impulses

Neurotransmitters

specialized chemicals that carry electrical impulses between neurons

Synaptic pruning

process when unnecessary connections between neurons are eliminated, improves efficiency of information processing

Myelin

insulates brain circuits, keeping the impulses flowing along their intended pathways rather than leaking out

Myelination

process where brain circuits are insulated with myelin, improves efficiency of information processing

Developmental plasticity

extensive remodeling of the brain's circuitry in response to experiences during childhood and adolescence, while the brain is still maturing

Adult plasticity

relatively minor changes in brain circuits as a result of experiences during adulthood, after brain development

Prefrontal cortex

Brain region most important for thinking, planning, thinking ahead, weighing risks and rewards and impulse control (cognitive control system)

Limbic system

plays an important role in the processing of emotional experience, social information and reward and punishment (socio-emotional system)

Neural maturation index

Combines measures of synaptic pruning and myelination to get an overall measure of brain development during adolescence

Executive function

more advanced thinking abilities, enabled by the maturation of the prefrontal cortex

Functional connectivity

extent multiple brain regions function at the same time

Dopamine

neurotransmitter important in brain circuits, regulates experience of reward

Serotonin

neurotransmitter that is important for the experience of different moods

Brain development index

quantified how mature the brain's circuitry was

Zone of proximal development

level of challenge within an individuals reach but forced then to develop more advanced skills (Vygotsky)

Scaffolding

stepped and structured learning

Social cognition

aspect of cognition that concern thinking about people, interpersonal relations and social institutions

Mentalizing

ability to understand someone else’s mental state

Social conventions

norms that govern behaviour in social situations

Behavioral decision theory

an approach to understanding adolescent risk taking, where behaviors are seen as the outcome of systemic decision-making process

Sensation seeking

The tendency to seek out exciting experiences, taking risks and engaging in novel activities to satisfy need for stimulation & arousal.

Dogmatism

blindly cling to some authority; religion, science

Skepticism

Embrace the fact that there is no absolute, undoubtable knowledge; therefore, no basis for authority or rational consensus on truth

Piaget’s 4 stages of development from birth to adulthood

Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years), Pre-operational stage (2-5 years), Concrete operational (6-11 years), Formal operational period (adolescence – adulthood)

Major changes in cognition from kids to adults

Better at thinking about possibilities, thinking abstractly, metacognition, more multidimensional thinking, relativistic thinking

Gray matter

Darker tissue in the brain and spinal cord, essential for processing and transmitting information, influencing memory, attention, and decision-making.

Adolescence

The period of development between childhood and adulthood, typically characterized by physical, cognitive, and social changes.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experiences.

White matter

The tissue in the brain that contains nerve fibers and facilitates communication between different brain regions.

Behavioral Decision Theory

A theory that analyzes behaviors, including risky ones, as the outcome of a decision-making process involving five steps.

Social redefinition

The process in which an individual's position or status is redefined by society.

Age of majority

The designated age at which a person is recognized as an adult.

Statutory rape

Sexual activity between two individuals, even if consensual, when one of them is below the legal age of consent.

Initiation ceremony

A formal induction of a young person into adulthood, often involving rituals or ceremonies.

Juvenile justice system

A separate system of courts and related institutions developed to handle juvenile crime and delinquency.