Psychology Notes: Chapters 1 - 4

Correlation

The relationship between two variables, which allows psychologists to investigate how they may be connected.

Population

The complete group of interest in a study.

Representative Sample

A subset of a population that accurately reflects the members of the entire group, allowing for generalization of findings.

Random Sample

A sampling method where each member of a population has an equal chance of selection.

Stratified Sample

A sampling method where subgroups within the population are represented proportional to their size.

Volunteer Bias

The bias introduced when a study only includes volunteer participants, which may not represent the larger population.

Case Studies

An observational method involving an in-depth study of individuals or small groups, often in unique or rare situations.

Surveys

Research methods that gather non-observable information from a large number of respondents.

Naturalistic Observation

Research method involving the observation of subjects in their natural environment without interference.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure that expresses the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1.

Experimental Method

A research method that demonstrates cause and effect relationships through the use of controlled experiments.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment to assess the effect of changes in the independent variable.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Blind Study

A research study where participants do not know whether they are receiving the treatment or a placebo.

Double-Blind Study

A study design in which neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the treatment or placebo.

Critical Thinking

The process of evaluating the truth of one's claims and beliefs through skeptical analysis and assessment of evidence.

Ethics Review Committee

A group that evaluates the ethical implications of proposed studies and ensures they adhere to established standards.

Informed Consent

The process of providing potential research participants with sufficient information about a study to make an educated decision regarding their participation.

Afferent Neurons

Neurons that transmit sensory information from receptors to the central nervous system.

Efferent Neurons

Neurons that carry signals from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

Neural Impulses

Electrochemical messages that travel within neurons.

Action Potential

The electrical impulse that travels down an axon when a neuron fires.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons, consisting of an axon terminal and a synaptic cleft.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter that controls muscle contractions.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, voluntary movement, and learning.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation and sleep.

Circadian Rhythm

The internal biological clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle.

REM Sleep

A phase of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, and increased brain activity.

Insomnia

A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden sleep attacks.

Hypnosis

An altered state of consciousness in which an individual may be more open to suggestion.

Mindfulness Meditation

A practice that involves focusing on the present moment and cultivating a nonjudgmental awareness.

Biofeedback

A technique that uses monitoring devices to provide real-time feedback about physiological functions.