4. Monetary Policy

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Last updated 8:38 AM on 9/11/25
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11 Terms

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Fiat Money

Fiat money is currency that has no intrinsic value and is accepted as money because a government declares it legal tender.

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Roles of Banks

  • Monopoly supplier of the currency;

  • Banker to the government and the bankers’ bank;

  • Lender of last resort;

  • Regulator and supervisor of the payments system;

  • Conductor of monetary policy; and

  • Supervisor of the banking system (not sole).

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The Objectives of Monetary Policy

The mane objective of maintaining price stability (inflation).

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Monetary Policy Tools

  1. open market operations (via purchase and sale of government bonds);

  2. the refinancing rate (through repurchase agreement – REPO);

  3. reserve requirements.

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The Transmission Mechanism

To summarize, the central bank’s policy rate works through the economy via one

or more of the following interconnected channels:

  1. Short-term interest rates;

  2. Changes in the values of key asset prices;

  3. The exchange rate; and

  4. The expectations of economic agents.

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Exchange Rate Targeting

1. Инфляция ↑ (в Стране А выше, чем в США):

  • Инфляция ↑

  • Центральный банк продаёт доллары → скупает свою валюту

  • Количество денег в экономике ↓

  • Процентные ставки ↑

  • Кредиты дороже → экономика охлаждается → инфляция ↓


2. Инфляция ↓ (в Стране А ниже, чем в США):

  • Инфляция ↓

  • Центральный банк покупает доллары → выпускает свою валюту

  • Количество денег в экономике ↑

  • Процентные ставки ↓

  • Кредиты дешевле → экономика разгоняется → инфляция ↑

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Neutral Rate

Neutral rate = Trend growth + Inflation target

Expansionary < Neutral rate < Contractionary

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Demand & Supply Shocks

1. Шок спроса (рост потребления и инвестиций)
→ спрос ↑
→ инфляция ↑
→ ЦБ повышает ставки
→ кредиты дороже → спрос ↓
→ инфляция ↓


2. Шок предложения (рост цен на нефть и издержки)
→ издержки ↑ (например, цена на топливо)
→ цены ↑ → инфляция ↑
→ прибыль компаний ↓, потребление ↓
→ безработица ↑, экономика тормозит
→ если ЦБ ещё поднимет ставки → спад усиливается → позже инфляция резко ↓

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Liquidity trap

Liquidity trap – a situation when interest rates are near zero and people hoard money instead of spending or investing, making monetary policy ineffective.

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Quantitative Easing

Quantitative easing (QE) – an unconventional monetary policy where a central bank buys large amounts of financial assets to inject money into the economy and stimulate growth when interest rates are near zero.

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Fundamental limitation of monetary policy

Central bankers do not control the decisions of individuals and banks that can influence the money creation process.