PBSI 302 Exam 1

Research producer

For coursework in psychology, for graduate school and for working in a research laboratory.

Research consumer

For psychology courses, when reading printed or online news stories based on research, for your future career (evidence-based treatments).

Empiricism

Using evidence from the senses or from instruments that assist the senses as the basis for conclusions.

Theory

Set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another.

Hypothesis

The specific outcome that researcher expects to observe in a study if the theory is accurate.

Good scientific theories

Are supported by data, falsifiable (is possible to collect data that will indicate the theory is wrong), and have parsimony.

Basic research

The goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge about a particular topic.

Translational research

A bridge from basic to applied in which findings from basic research are then used to develop applications.

Applied research

Conducted in order to solve practical/real-world problems.

Experience

Has no comparison group and is confounded.

Research

Is probabilistic (not expected to explain all cases) and involves trusting authorities on the subject (peer review).

Availability heuristic

Being persuaded by what comes to mind.

Present/Present bias

Failing to think about what we cannot see.

Confirmation bias

Focusing on the evidence we like best.

Bias Blind Spot

Biased about benign biases.

Variable

Something that changes or varies; must have at least two levels/values.

Constant

Does not vary, stays the same.

Measured variable

Observed and recorded.

Manipulated variable

Controlled by the researcher.

Conceptual variable (construct)

Abstract, theoretical concepts that cannot be directly measured (e.g., depression, intelligence).

Operational definition

The specific way a conceptual variable is measured or manipulated.

Frequency claim

Describes a particular rate or degree of a single variable. Involves one measured variable.

Association claim

Argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable. Involves at least two measured variables.

Causal claim

Argues that one variable is responsible for changing another. Requires at least one manipulated and one measured variable.

Construct validity

How well variables are measured/manipulated.

External validity

How well the results generalize to other people, contexts, or times.

Statistical validity

Accuracy of numbers/statistics; strength and significance of the results.

Internal validity

Extent to which a study rules out alternative explanations (priority for causal claims).

Association claims

Check construct (both variables), external (generalizability), and statistical (strength/significance, avoid Type I & II errors).

Causal claims

Must meet three criteria: Covariance (variables are correlated), Temporal precedence (cause before effect), Internal validity (no alternative explanations, random assignment helps).

Criteria for Causal Claims

Must satisfy covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity (no confounds).

Random assignment

Increases internal validity by controlling alternative explanations.

Experiments

Are best for establishing causality.

Prioritizing Validities

Depends on the type of claim: Frequency claims: Construct, external, statistical (not internal); Association claims: Construct, external, statistical (not internal); Causal claims: Internal validity is top priority.

Core Ethical Principles

Nuremberg Code (1947): One of the earliest codes; emphasized weighing risks vs. benefits and the need for informed consent.

Declaration of Helsinki

Added the requirement of a written protocol reviewed by an independent committee.

Belmont Report

Defined three core ethical principles for research with humans.

Respect for Persons

Treat participants as autonomous agents. Informed consent required. Special consideration groups: children, prisoners, people with intellectual disabilities, disadvantaged groups.

Principle of Beneficence

Protect participants from harm. Ensure well-being. Weigh risks vs. benefits. Use anonymous or confidential studies when possible.

Principle of Justice

Fair balance between those who participate and those who benefit. Avoid exploiting disadvantaged groups for research when benefits will go to others.

Guidelines for Psychologists

The APA Ethical Principles: Belmont's 3 principles + two additional ones (APA's Five General Principles).

Integrity

Psychologists must be accurate and honest in teaching, research, and clinical work.

Fidelity and Responsibility

Psychologists must establish relationships of trust and avoid conflicts of interest (e.g., cannot serve as both therapist and teacher to the same student).

APA Ethical Standard 8

Research with Humans & Animals.

Institutional Review Boards

Committees that review research proposals for ethical compliance.

Informed Consent

Written explanation of the study; participant signs two copies (one to keep, one for researcher).

Deception

Omission = withholding details; Commission = lying about details.

Debriefing

Must explain purpose and any deception afterward.

Research Misconduct

Data Fabrication: Inventing data that never occurred; Data Falsification: Altering data, deleting observations, or influencing participants to produce expected results; Plagiarism: Presenting others' words/ideas as one's own.

Animal Research

Legal protections: Animal Welfare Act (AWA), Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).

Three R's

Replacement → use alternatives if possible; Refinement → modify procedures to reduce distress; Reduction → use the fewest number of animals necessary.

Ethical Decision-Making

Always requires balancing priorities: Risks vs. benefits; Individual rights vs. societal gains; Voluntary participation vs. coercion.