crime and devience

crime vs deviance

• crime- violation of laws

• deviance- violation of social norms

• crime- always punishable criminal offences

• deviance- can be criminal or not criminal

functionalism and crime

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Durkheim and the inevitably of crime

• crime is universal and inevitable

• “crime is normal… an integral part of all healthy societies”

• reasons for crime- people socialised differently, there is diversity in values

positive functions of crime

• boundary maintenance

• adaptation and change

• safety value

• warning

boundary maintenance

• crime produces a reaction from society

• this reinforces members commitment to shared norms and values

• durkeim believes that punishment is meant to reinforce social norms

adaptation and change

• durkeim believes that all change starts with an act of deviance

• with new ideas individuals must try to change and challenge existing norms and at first this will appear as deviance

safety valve

• crime stops threats to institutions

• davis argues that prostitution acts as a safety valve for the release of men’s sexual frustrations without threatening the nuclear family

warning

• cohen argues that deviance acts as a warning that an institution is not functioning properly

• e.g. high rates of truancy may tell us there is a problem with the education system and that policy makers need to make adequate change

criticisms of durkeim

• functionalism looks at what functions crime serves for the whole of society but not how it affected individuals

• crime doesn’t always produce solidarity, it may make people feel more isolated

Merton strain theory

• argue that people engage in different behaviour when they are unable to achieve socially approved goals by legitimate means

Morton’s 5 responses

• conformity

• innovation

• ritualism

• retreatism

• rebellion

comformity

• accept culturally defined goals

• approve of the socially acceptable means of achieving goals

innovation

• accept the goals

• reject the means

ritualism

• do not accept the culturally defined goals

• accept the means (don’t break the law)

retreatism

• don’t accept the goals

• reject the means of achieving

• e.g. homeless or drug user

rebellion

• accept and set their own goals (not societies) and their own ways of meeting them

evaluation of merton

• Marxists argue that it ignored the power of the ruling class to make and enforce the laws in ways that criminalise the poor not the rich

• assumes that there is a value consensus- that everyone strives for success

• only accounts for financial crimes not violent

cohen and status frustration

• agrees with merton that deviance is largely a lower class phenomenon

• it results from the inability of those in lower classes to achieve mainstream success goals by legitimate means

• however cohen criticised merton by saying he ignored that crime is committed by groups and only focuses on utilitarian crime

stages of status frustration

1. w/c taught m/c norms and values

2. w/c children can’t achieve m/c norms and values

3. w/c suffer status frustration

4. w/c then reject m/c norms and values

5. delinquent subcultures form

6. this offers an alternative route to gain status

alternative status hierarchy

• the subcultures values are spite, hostility and contempt for those outside of it

• the delinquent subculture inverts societies values

• the subcultures function is that it offers the boys an alternative status hierarchy in which they can achieve

• having failed in the legitimate opportunity structure, the boys create their own illegitimate one in which they can win status from peers through delinquent actions

Cloward and ohlin: 3 subcultures

1. criminal subcultures: they arise only in neighbourhoods with a long standing criminal structure with an established hierarchy of professional adult crime- this allows the young to associate with adult criminals

2. conflict subcultures- arises in areas of high population turnover, results in high levels of social disorganisation and prevents a stable professional criminal network developing. Its absence means that the only illegitimate opportunities available are within loosely organised gangs- where violence provides a release of frustration at their blocked opportunities

3. retreatist subcultures- those who fail to be a professional criminal or gang leader as well as failing in the legitimate structure

evaluation

• over predict the amount of working class and ignore the wider power structure

• provides an explanation for different type of working class deviance in terms of subcultures

• assumes that everyone starts off sharing the same mainstream success goals

interactionism and labelling theory

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becker

• an act can only become deviant hen others define it as such

• the label of deviancy depends on who commits the act, when and where, who observes the act

• if a criminal is labelled as one it becomes their master status

crime and deviance is defined by

• time

• place

• social situation

• culture

what is primary deviance

• a violation of norms that doesn’t result in any long term consequences

• doesn’t hurt self image

secondary deviance

• a persons self concept changes due to the label society gives that person

cicourel: the negation of justice

• believe in typifications

• believe that those of lower class are more likely to be charged and those of higher status are more likely to get ignored

• this idea would increase the dark figure of crime- groups will be over and under represented

what affects polices decisions to arrest a youth?

• piliavan and briar

• physical cues (manners, dress)

• gender

• class

• ethnicity

• time and place

effects of labelling

• lead to further crime

• self fulfilling prophecy

• others believe the label

• people are shamed

• blocked opportunities

folk devils vs dark figure of crime

• dark figure- all unlabelled and unrecorded crime that is ignored by police and public

• fold devils are the opposite- they reviver represented and exposed to the public

• cohen arches that media focus on reporting deviant behaviour around folk devils

reintegrative shaming

• labels the act as deviant but not the actor

• e.g. “he has done a bad thing” rather than “he is a bad person”

• braithewaite believes that crime rates are lower in societies where reintegrative shaming is dominant

disintegration shaming

• where not only the crime but also the criminal is labelled as bad and the offender is excluded from society

Marxism, class and crime

• criminogenic capitalism

• state and law making

criminogenic capitalism

• crime is inevitable in capitalism as capitalism is criminogenic- by its very nature it causes crime

• capitalism is damaging for working class and this may give rise to crime: poverty may mean that crime is the only way the working class can survive, alienation may lead to frustration

• however crime is not confined to the working class- capitalism can make higher classes more greedy and this leads to white collar crime

the state and law making

• chambliss is trying to say that laws are made to protect and cover up things that the bourgeoisie do

• selective enforcement_ the idea that laws aww not applied equally

neo marxism: critical criminology

• taylor agreed with Marxists that the capitalist society is based in exploitation and class conflict, state makes law on the interests of upper classes and that capitalism should be replaced by a classless society

• but disagree with Marxists as believes they are determinism and they focus more on free will

a fully social theory of deviance

• taylor aimed to create a fully social theory of deviance- a comprehensive understanding of crime that would help society for the better

• a complete theory of deviance needs to unite six aspects:

  1. the wider origins of the deviant act

  2. the immediate origins of the deviant act- the particular context in which the individual decides to commit the act

  3. the act itself- and its meaning for the actor

  4. the immediate origins of social reaction- police, family, etc

  5. the wider origins of social reaction

  6. the effects of labelling

crimes of the powerful

• Sutherlands 4 types of white collar crime:

  1. Occupational crime- individual in work

  2. profesional crime- lifetime career

  3. corporate crime- carried out by directors in companies in order to maximise profits

  4. computer crime- e.g. transferring illegal funds

• tombs argues that powerful cooperations can influence the law so that their actions are not criminalised

cooperate crime covers…

• financial crime

• crimes against consumers (false advertisement)

• crimes against employees (racial discrimination etc)

the abuse of trust

• high status profesionales occupy positions of trust and respectability

• their position and status gives them the ability to abuse this trust

the invisibility of corporate crime

• the media (they cover it up)

• underreporting

explanations of corporate crime

• differential association

• labelling

• marxism

• strain theory

differential association

• sutherland says that the less we associate with people who hold attitudes favourable to the law and the more we associate with people who have criminal attitudes, the more likely we are to become deviant ourselves

• if a company’s culture justifies committing crimes to achieve corporate goals, employees will be socialised into this criminality

labelling

• businesses and professionals often have the power to avoid labelling as they can afford expensive experts (lawyers) to help them avoid activities that they are involved in

marxism

• corporate crime is a result of capitalism due to the want to maximise profits

• box says that cooperations are criminogenic because if their legitimate ways are blocked they will find illegitimate ways

strain theory

• if a company can not legally maximise profits then they will find illegitimate ways

right realism and causes of crime

• biological differences

• inadequate socialisation

• rational choice

biological differences

• biological differences between individuals make people innately more strongly predisposed to commit crimes more then others (being aggressive)

inadequate socialisation

• effective socialisation decreases the biological risk

• meaning inadequate socialisation and biological differences increase the risk of being a criminal

• crime rates are increasing because the underclass are unable to socialise their children adequately

rational choice

• people choose to commit crime

• if criminals calculate that the risk of getting caught is low or that the punishment is not that severe then they are more likely to commit crimes

right realism and tackling crime

• do not believe it is fruitful to try to deal with the causes of crime

• they seek practical measures to make crime less attractive

• they do this through control, containment and punishment

zero tolerance

• a strategy that aims to reduce minor offences

• young argues that it’s success was a myth

left realism and the causes of crime (MRS)

• marginalisation

• relative deprivation

• subculture

marginalisation

• marginalised groups lack both clear goals and organisations to represent their interests. This builds up frustration so they release this through crime (violence) to achieve their goals

relative deprivation

• refers to how deprived someone feels in relation to others, or compared with their own expectations

• this can lead to crime when people resent others for having more and resort to crime to obtain what they feel they are entitled to

• people are more aware of relative deprivation due to the media and advertising which raise people’s expectations for material possessions

subculture

• criminal subcultures subscribe to the values and goals of mainstream society

• however opportunities to achieve these goals legitimately are blocked so they resort to street crime instead

left realists and tackling crime

• loss of trust leads to military policing- “swamping” an area and using random stop and search tactics but this alienates the community and weakens the locals trust in the police even more

• police need to improve their relationship with local communities

evaluation of left realism

• they rely on quantitative data from victims surveys, so they cannot explain offenders motives

• Marxists argue that it is fails to explain corporate crime

• relative deprivation cannot fully explain crime because not all of those who experience it, commit crime

gender, crime and justice

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gender patterns in crime

• four out of five convicted offenders are male

• by the age of 40, 9% of women have a criminal conviction compared to 32% of males

chivalry thesis

• argued that most criminal justice agents are men and men are socialised to act in a chivalrous (protective) way towards women

• criminal justice system more lenient with women so their crimes are less likely to end up in official statistics

evidence against the chivalry thesis

• fartington and morris found that twice as many males shoplifted than women but the difference shown in official statistics were equal- this shows that more women are prosecuted than men

• a women typically suffers 35 assaults before reporting domestic violence

bias against women

• feminists say that the court treats females more harshly than males when they deviate from gender norms- e.g. double standards (7/11 girls were referred for support because they were sexually active compared to 0/44 boys)

• carlen argued that when women are jailed it is less for the seriousness of their crimes and the assessment of them as wives, mothers and daughters (women were treated more harshly if they children were in care compared to good mothers)

explaining female crime

• functionalist sex role theory

• heidensohn: patriarchal control

• carlen: class and gender deals

• the liberation thesis

functionalist sex role theory

• parsons argues that men are socialised to take the instrumental role, act tough and be aggressive whereas women are socialised to take on the expressive role where they take the responsibility of socialising the children

• this can cause men to commit crime, be aggressive and take part in anti social behaviour

heidensohn: patriarchal control

• women commit less crime as patriarchal society imposes greater control over women and this reduces their chances to offend

• control at home- women’s domestic role of housework and childcare reduces their opportunities to offend

• control in public- through the threat or fear of male violence against them. Women avoid going out in the dark as this is when most crime is committed, meaning they can’t commit crime themselves.

• control at work- controlled by male supervisors and managers. The glass ceiling prevents women from moving up in the hierarchy- therefore preventing their chances of being involved in criminal activities at work (corporate crime)

carlen: class and gender deals

• most convicted female criminals are working clsss

• carlen argues that working class women are led to conform through the class deal (women who work will be offered material rewards) and the gender deal (patriarchal ideology promises women material and emotional rewards from family life)

• if these rewards are not available or worth the effort, crime becomes more likely

the liberation thesis

• alder argues that as women become liberated from patriarchy, their crimes will become as frequent and serious as men’s

• the changes in the structure of society has led to changes in women’s offending behaviour- discrimination has been reduced, opportunities in work and education have become more equal has led to “male” roles in illegitimate activity

why do men commit crime?

• the concept of masculinity- men use crime as a resource to accomplish masculinity

ethnicity, crime and justice

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generic statistics

• black people are more likely to be imprisoned then other groups

• black people make up 3% of the population, but 14% of the prison population

stop and search statistics

• white people- 7/1000

• black people- 45/1000

explaining stop and search patterns

• police racism- many officers hold negative stereotypes about ethnic minorities as criminals, leading to deliberate targeting in stop and searches

• ethnic differences in offending- low discretion stops (based on relevant info of offender) and high discretion stops (based on stereotypes, a hunch and discrimination)

taser usage statistics

• white 6/10,000

• black 18/10,000

arrests and cautions statistics

• arrest rates for blacks was three times more then whites

• but blacks and Asians were less likely then whites to receive a caution

explaining ethnic differences

• left realism

• gilroy: the myth of black criminality

• hall: policing crisis

left realism

• ethnic differences in stats reflect differences in real life

• racism has led to marginalisation (thus led to high unemployment, poverty etc) which has led to young black boys forming delinquent subcultures

• this has led to an increase in utilitarian crime as a way of coping with relative deprivation

gilroy: myth of black criminality

• It’s a myth because it is based on racist stereotypes of black Caribbean and African

• in reality these groups aren’t more criminal then others

• they’re over represented as police act on these stereotypes

• gilroy believes that ethnic minorities crime is a form of political resistance against a racist society

HOWEVER- most crime is intra-ethnic meaning it can’t be a response two racist society

hall: policing the crisis

• 1070 saw a moral panic over black muggers which served interest of capitalism

• capitalism crisis led to high inflation and unemployment

• this led to people opposing capitalism and resulted in ruling class needing to take control

• to take control, the media created a moral panic about mugging (which had no evidence of an increase) and black youths were blamed to hide the real problem- capitalist crisis

• this divided the working class on racial grounds and weakened the opposition to capitalism

• black youths then marginalised leading them to commit petty crime

• HOWVER- no evidence that society was blaming blacks

media representations of crime compared to official stats

• over represent violent and sexual crime- DITTON+DUFFY 46% of media reports were about violent or sexual crimes but they only make up 3% of crimes recorded by the police

• portray criminals and victims as older and more middle class

• exaggerates police success- because police want to present themselves in a positive light

• exaggerate the risk of victimisation especially to women, white peoples and higher status

what are news values

• criteria by which journalists and editors decide whether a story is newsworthy enough

• the criteria- immediacy, dramatisation, personalisation, higher status, simplification, unexpectedness, risk and violence

fictional representations of crime

• surrette- the “laws of opposites”

• the idea that fictional representation are the opposite to what official stats show and are similar to news coverage

trends within fictional crime

• an increasing tendency to show police as corrupt and brutal

• offenders are young non white and under class

how does the media cause crime

• imitation (copy cat)

• arousal

• desensitisation (through repeated viewing of violence)

• by transmitting knowledge or criminal techniques

• as a target for crime

• by stimulating desires for unaffordable goods

• by portraying the police as incompetent

• by glamourising offending

• relative deprivation

media and fear of crime

• gerbner found that heavy users of TV had higher rates of crime

cultural criminology, the media and crime

• cultural criminology argues that the media turns crime itself into the commodity that people desire

• the media encourages their audience to consume crime

media and the commodification of crime

• cooperations and advertisers use media images of crime to sell products, especially to the youth

• e.g. gangster rap

• fenwick and hayward- crime and deviance becomes a style to be consumed (fashion industry advertises images of the forbidden like heroin)

moral panics

• Cohen

• media fuelled over reaction to a social group

features of moral panic

• exaggeration and distortion

• prediction

• symbolisation- what is happening says something about us

functionalist view on moral panics

• reinforces values

• raises collective consciousness

• reassert social controls

neo Marxist view on moral panics

• hall argues that the moral panic over “mugging” served to distract attention from the crisis of capitalism

cyber crime

• jewkes- internet creates opportunities to commit both conventional crimes and new crimes

wall and his 4 categories of cybercrime

1. cyber tress pass- crossing boundaries into others cyber property (e.g hacking)

2. cyber deception and theft (e.g identity theft)

3. cyber pornography

4. cyber violence

crime and globalisation

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the global criminal economy

• held says there’s been a globalisation of crime- an increasing interconnectedness of crime across national borders

• modern transport makes it easier for criminals to operate across borders

• globalisation creates new opportunities for crime, such as drug trafficking

• as a result of this, castell argued there is now a global criminal economy worth over £1 trillion per year

global risk consciousness

• beck argued that globalisation creates world wide risks that affect many countries

• for example, the rise of new technology has led to the development of cyber crime

• different t types of cyber crime- one being cyber deception and theft

• due to glabalisation, a crime committed in one country can have consequences across the world

• H- theft has always been a crime

globalisation, capitalism and crime

• taylor argues that globalisation has spread capitalism worldwide

• this has led to greater inequality and relative deprivation

• this may encourage crime as people compare themselves to wealthier groups

• e.g people can see luxury lifestyles online but may lack legitimate opportunities to achieve them

green crime

• beck argues that in today’s late modern society we can provide adequate resources for all

• but now that there has been an increase in productivity and technology that sustains it, it has created “manufactured risks”

• many of these risks involve harm to the environment and has consequences for humanity e.g global warming

• these risks are global, leading beck to describe late modern society as a “global risk society”