gender and achievement

gcse attainment by gender

5+ gcses a*-c in 2013 (jcq)

72% girls

64% boys

external factors

1. impact of feminism

2. changes in family

3. changes in women’s employment

4. girls’ changing ambitions

mcrobbie (1994)

impact of feminism

girls’ magazines in 1970s - importance of marriage, not being ‘left on the shelf’

1990s - images of assertive, independent women - raised expectations and self esteem

changes in family

increase in divorce rates and lone parent families

should not rely on husband, want to earn their own living

lone mothers take on breadwinner role → new role model of financially independent woman

needs well-paying jobs → need good qualifications

changes in employment

1970 equal pay act

1975 sex discrimination act

rise in employment rates for women (but also more likely to work part time)

career opportunities provide incentive to gain qualifications

sharpe (1994)

changing ambitions

interviews in 1970s - educational success seen as unfeminine - prioritise marriage and children over career

1990s - prioritise career and ability to support themselves (not being dependent on husband)

reay (1998)

wc girls more likely to have gender stereotyped aspirations for marriage

perceived limited job opportunities available to them

traditional gender identity is more attainable and brings status

internal factors

1. equal opportunity policies

2. positive role models

3. gcses and coursework

4. teacher attention

5. selection and league tables

equal opportunities policies

boaler (1998)

wise (women into science and engineering)

gist (girls into science and technology)

policies make education more meritocratic - girls generally work harder so achieve more

positive role models

1992 - secondary school teachers 49% women

2012 - 61% women

shows girls they can achieve positions of importance - e.g. becoming a teacher requires education

but only 37% of headteachers were women in 2012 - limited in higher management roles

gorard (2005)

mitsos and browne (1998)

gcses and coursework - achievement gap sharply increased after 1989

1. girls spend more time on work and take more care - conscientious and better organised

2. result of family socialisation - girls encouraged to be neat/tidy and patient

francis (2001)

swann (1998)

1. boys get more attention but are disciplined more harshly

2. girls prefer pair/group work - better at listening, cooperating and turn-taking - teachers respond positively

jackson (1998)

exam league tables → high-achieving girls more attractive to schools

self fulfilling prophecy - selected by good schools so more likely to do well

boys seen as liability students - more behaviour problems and exclusions

archer et al (2010)

performing wc feminine identities → gain symbolic capital from peers

creates conflict with school - prevents gaining educational/economic capital

hyper-heterosexual feminine identities - appearance focused

boyfriends - lower career aspirations, focus on settling down

being ‘loud’ - assertive, questioning authority - seen as aggressive

evans (2009)

wc sixth form girls in south london comprehensive

wanted to go to uni to increase earning power - for family not themselves

dcsf (2007)

boys have poorer literacy and language skills e.g. parents read to sons less

bedroom culture

boys’ leisure activies e.g. football do not develop language/communication skills

girls’ ‘bedroom culture’ focuses on staying in and talking to friends

mitsos and browne - globalisation

decline in heavy industry since 80s e.g. iron and steel

traditionally male sectors - identity crisis for men - low motivation to achieve

rise of service sector - seen as feminine

sewell

education has become ‘feminised’

schools do not nurture masculine traits e.g. competitiveness and leadership

coursework is major cause of gender differences

read (2008)

primary school

most female teachers use disciplinarian (masculine) discourse to control pupil behaviour - explicit authority e.g. shouting

disproves feminisation claim - not only men able to discipline students

epstein (1998)

laddish subcultures

wc boys seen as ‘swots’ are harassed, labelled as sissies, face homophobic abuse

schoolwork seen as feminine → inferior

wc boys reject schoolwork to avoid bullying

ringrose (2013)

moral panic about ‘failing boys’ - fear that underachieving wc boys grow up to be dangerous underclass - threatening social stability

shift in educational policy to help boys ignores problems of wc and em pupils - ignores other problems girls face in education e.g. sexual harassment

a level subject choices by gender

jcq (2013)

computing 93% male

english 72% female

sociology 75% female

causes of subject choice differences

1. gender role socialisation

2. gendered subject images

3. peer pressure

4. gendered career opportunities

browne and ross (1991)

gender domains - tasks seen as m/f territory - shaped by early images of adults e.g. fixing a car vs caring for sick child

kelly

leonard (2006)

1. science teachers more likely to be men - examples draw on boys’ interests e.g. football in mechanics/physics

2. pupils in single-sex schools make less stereotyped choices - less peer pressure - e.g. girls 2.4x more likely to take a level physics

gendered career opportunities

jobs tend to be sex-typed

women - similar to work done by housewives e.g. childcare, nursing, cleaning

vocational courses much more gender-specific as they relate more closely to career plans

pupils’ sexual and gender identities - lees (1993)

double standards - boys boast about sexual experiences but girls are labelled as slags