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gcse attainment by gender
5+ gcses a*-c in 2013 (jcq)
72% girls
64% boys
external factors
impact of feminism
changes in family
changes in women’s employment
girls’ changing ambitions
mcrobbie (1994)
impact of feminism
girls’ magazines in 1970s - importance of marriage, not being ‘left on the shelf’
1990s - images of assertive, independent women - raised expectations and self esteem
changes in family
increase in divorce rates and lone parent families
should not rely on husband, want to earn their own living
lone mothers take on breadwinner role → new role model of financially independent woman
needs well-paying jobs → need good qualifications
changes in employment
1970 equal pay act
1975 sex discrimination act
rise in employment rates for women (but also more likely to work part time)
career opportunities provide incentive to gain qualifications
sharpe (1994)
changing ambitions
interviews in 1970s - educational success seen as unfeminine - prioritise marriage and children over career
1990s - prioritise career and ability to support themselves (not being dependent on husband)
reay (1998)
wc girls more likely to have gender stereotyped aspirations for marriage
perceived limited job opportunities available to them
traditional gender identity is more attainable and brings status
internal factors
equal opportunity policies
positive role models
gcses and coursework
teacher attention
selection and league tables
equal opportunities policies
boaler (1998)
wise (women into science and engineering)
gist (girls into science and technology)
policies make education more meritocratic - girls generally work harder so achieve more
positive role models
1992 - secondary school teachers 49% women
2012 - 61% women
shows girls they can achieve positions of importance - e.g. becoming a teacher requires education
but only 37% of headteachers were women in 2012 - limited in higher management roles
gorard (2005)
mitsos and browne (1998)
gcses and coursework - achievement gap sharply increased after 1989
girls spend more time on work and take more care - conscientious and better organised
result of family socialisation - girls encouraged to be neat/tidy and patient
francis (2001)
swann (1998)
boys get more attention but are disciplined more harshly
girls prefer pair/group work - better at listening, cooperating and turn-taking - teachers respond positively
jackson (1998)
exam league tables → high-achieving girls more attractive to schools
self fulfilling prophecy - selected by good schools so more likely to do well
boys seen as liability students - more behaviour problems and exclusions
archer at al (2010)
performing wc feminine identities → gain symbolic capital from peers
creates conflict with school - prevents gaining educational/economic capital
hyper-heterosexual feminine identities - appearance focused
boyfriends - lower career aspirations, focus on settling down
being ‘loud’ - assertive, questioning authority - seen as aggressive
evans (2009)
wc sixth form girls in south london comprehensive
wanted to go to uni to increase earning power - for family not themselves
dcsf (2007)
boys have poorer literacy and language skills e.g. parents read to sons less
bedroom culture
boys’ leisure activies e.g. football do not develop language/communication skills
girls’ ‘bedroom culture’ focuses on staying in and talking to friends
mitsos and browne - globalisation
decline in heavy industry since 80s e.g. iron and steel
traditionally male sectors - identity crisis for men - low motivation to achieve
rise of service sector - seen as feminine
sewell
education has become ‘feminised’
schools do not nurture masculine traits e.g. competitiveness and leadership
coursework is major cause of gender differences
read (2008)
primary school
most female teachers use disciplinarian (masculine) discourse to control pupil behaviour - explicit authority e.g. shouting
disproves feminisation claim - not only men able to discipline students
epstein (1998)
laddish subcultures
wc boys seen as ‘swots’ are harassed, labelled as sissies, face homophobic abuse
schoolwork seen as feminine → inferior
wc boys reject schoolwork to avoid bullying
ringrose (2013)
moral panic about ‘failing boys’ - fear that underachieving wc boys grow up to be dangerous underclass - threatening social stability
shift in educational policy to help boys ignores problems of wc and em pupils - ignores other problems girls face in education e.g. sexual harassment
a level subject choices by gender
jcq (2013)
computing 93% male
english 72% female
sociology 75% female
causes of subject choice differences
gender role socialisation
gendered subject images
peer pressure
gendered career opportunities
browne and ross (1991)
gender domains - tasks seen as m/f territory - shaped by early images of adults e.g. fixing a car vs caring for sick child
kelly
leonard (2006)
science teachers more likely to be men - examples draw on boys’ interests e.g. football in mechanics/physics
pupils in single-sex schools make less stereotyped choices - less peer pressure - e.g. girls 2.4x more likely to take a level physics
gendered career opportunities
jobs tend to be sex-typed
women - similar to work done by housewives e.g. childcare, nursing, cleaning
vocational courses much more gender-specific as they relate more closely to career plans
pupils’ sexual and gender identities - lees (1993)
double standards - boys boast about sexual experiences but girls are labelled as slags
feminist view - patriarchal ideology justifies male power and devalues women - social control keeping women subordinate to men