Developmental psychology

What happens to the brain at 3-4 weeks

A long tube develops, dividing the brain into three round sections: the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain

What happens to the brain at 5 weeks

• It splits into the anterior and posterior regions

• The midbrain remains undivided

What happens to brain at 6 weeks

• Cerebellum begins to form

• Medulla forms (6-7 weeks)

What happens to brain at 20 weeks

The medulla oblongata connects the upper brain to the spinal cord and is responsible for automatic responses

Functions of the forebrain

Reasoning, problem-solving, and personality

Functions of the hypothalamus

• Regulates respiration, blood pressure, and body temperature.

Functions of the thalamus

• Manages sleep/wake cycles.

• Sorts and relays sensory information to the cerebellum

Functions of the cerebrum

o   Largest part of the brain.

o   Associated with thought and action.

o   Divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal.

Functions of the midbrain

• Helps regulate simple movements and sensory information.

Functions of the hindbrain

• Controls heart rate, facial expressions, and basic survival mechanisms.

Function of the medulla

Autonomic functions: breathing, heart rate, sneezing, blood pressure

Functions of the cerebellum

Motor commands for balance, walking, and running.

Functions of the pons

• Serves as a bridge/relay station, sending messages across the brain.

  • Also regulates arousal, breathing, and sensory info between the cerebrum and cerebellum

Senorimotor stage

• (0-2) years

• Babies explore using senses and body movements.

• Learn that objects exist even when not visible (Object Permanence).

• Actions cause things to happen in the environment.

Pre-operational stage

• 2-7 years

• Think symbolically (using words/pictures).

• Difficulty understanding conservation of matter.

• Egocentric thinking (seeing the world from their perspective).

• Can’t distinguish fantasy from reality

Centration

Focus on one aspect of a situation.

Animism

Attributing feelings to inanimate objects

Egocentrism

Inability to see others’ viewpoints

Conservation of Matter

Struggle to understand that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.

Concrete Operational stage

• 7-11 years

• Begin to think logically about concrete events.

• Understand conservation of matter and reversibility (knowing actions can be reversed).

• Less egocentric, can understand others' perspectives.

Formal operational stage

• 11+

• Abstract thinking develops.

• Hypothetico-deductive reasoning: Ability to generate hypotheses and solve problems systematically.

• Can manipulate ideas and think creatively

Schemas

Categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world

Assimilation

• Integrating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adjusting schemas based on new experiences

Equilibrium

Balancing assimilation and accommodation to progress through stages

Strengths of Piaget’s theory

1. Helps explain how children’s thought processes evolve.

2. Real-world applications, especially in education, allowing teachers to tailor instruction to developmental levels.

Weaknesses of Piaget’s theory

1. Underestimated Children’s Abilities: Children may perform better on simpler tasks.

2. Sample Bias: Research based on a small, middle-class sample (including his own children).

3. Cultural Ignorance: Studies show cultural factors affect cognitive development (e.g., Aboriginal vs. Swiss children).

Aims- 3 mountains study

1. Investigate children's ability to take the perspective of another person. (Stop being egocentric)

Sample and equipment- 3 mountains study

• Sample: 100 children

• Equipment:

  1. Three Mountains Model: Green, Brown, and Grey Mountains.

  2. 10 Pictures of the mountains.

  3. Three Colored Cards (Green, Brown, Grey).

• Wooden Doll

Procedure- 3 montains study

1) Arrange coloured shapes based on their view or the doll’s view.
2) Choose 1 out of the 10 pictures based on their view or the doll’s view.
3) Choose 1 out of the 10 pictures and then position the doll with the same view.

Results- 3 mountains study

• Pre-Operational Stage (4-7 years):

  • Organized based on their own view.

  • Unable to place the doll according to the picture’s view.

• Concrete-Operational Stage (7-9 years):

  • Began to understand others' viewpoints.

  • By age 9-10, recognized the doll has a different view.

  • Produced detailed qualitative data.

Conclusion- 3 mountains study

1. Children aged 4-7 years are egocentric.

2. Children aged 7+ years are non-egocentric.

Strengths- 3 mountains study

1. Qualitative Data:

   • Rich, detailed insights into children's thought processes and errors.

1. Experimental Methods:

   • Controlled conditions allowed valid comparisons between different children's responses.

Weaknesses- 3 mountains study

• Repacholi & Gopnik (1997) said that the task was innately difficult, replicated the study and found that younger children could identify others’ perspectives when everyday objects were used.

• Ecological validity- unnatural setting

Fixed mindset

The belief that abilities are fixed and unchangeable

Growth mindset

The belief that practice and effort can improve abilities

Strengths- Carol Dweck’s mindset theory

• Practical Application: Presence in educational settings, implementing more growth mindset praise

• Positive Theory: Indicates that individuals can change their mindset and improve performance.

Weaknesses- Carol Dweck’s mindset theory

1. Lacks Validity: Experiments may take place in artificial settings that do not accurately represent real-life situations.

2. Overemphasis on Effort: The theory may ignore other important factors affecting performance, such as quality of teaching.

Willingham’s learning theory

• factual knowledge precedes skill

• the importance of practice, and effort

STM

Temporary and limited memory storage

Cognitive development- Willingham theory

1. Present new, manageable problems requiring effort.

2. Be aware of each student’s developmental stage.

3. Recognize variability in student abilities daily.

Physical development- Willingham theory

1. Appropriate movement sequences.

2. Repetitive practice for motor skills to become automatic.

Social development- Willingham theory

1. Encourage children to observe and mimic appropriate social behavior.

2. Manage impulsivity by creating organized environments to reduce triggers

Strengths- Willingham theory

• Practical Applications: Can positively influence educational practices to support child development.

• Supporting Research: Evidence from studies (e.g., Repacholi & Gopnik, 1997) challenges Piaget’s staged development, showing younger children can exhibit non-egocentric behavior.

Weaknesses- Willingham theory

• Ignores Individual Differences: Limited emphasis on how genetic factors affect learning; suggests a one-size-fits-all strategy despite recognizing individual variability.

• Genetic Limitations: The theory offers strategies for development but cannot easily change inherent genetic traits.

Person praise

• Praise directed at the individual

Process praise

Praise focused on the child's actions or efforts

Aims- Gunderson

1. To investigate how parents of children aged 14 to 48 months use different types of praise.

Procedure- Gunderson

• Sample: 53 children (29 boys, 24 girls) from 63 families in Chicago.

• Deception: Parents were misled about the study's aim, which was presented as focusing on language development.

• Data Collection: Every four months, from 14 months of age, in the children's homes using video recordings.

• Praise Categories: Process praise, person praise, and other praise were coded.

• Follow-Up: Children were assessed at ages 7-8 on task preferences and beliefs about intelligence and personality.

Results- Gunderson

Children whose parents used more process praise exhibited:

• More positive approaches to challenges.

• A belief that traits can improve with effort.

Conclusion- Gunderson

Process praise improve children’s attitudes towards challenges

Strengths- Gunderson

• Conducted in a natural environment, enhancing validity.

• Researcher bias was minimized as data collectors were unaware of the true focus on praise.

Weaknesses- Gunderson

• Ethical concerns due to deception about the study's aim.

• Potential changes in parent behavior due to observation, affecting data validity.

Morality- Piaget

• Standards of right and wrong influenced by culture and situation.

Heteronomous morality (5-10) years- Piaget

• Children see rules as fixed and created by authority figures.

• Moral reasoning is based on avoiding punishment.

Autonomous morality (10+ years)- Piaget

• Children understand that rules can be created and changed through mutual agreement.

• They recognize that moral decisions can vary based on circumstances

Weaknesses- PTMD

• Artificiality of Stories: Piaget used stories to assess moral reasoning, which may not reflect real-life moral dilemmas (lacks ecological validity).

• Lack of Punishment: Decisions made in hypothetical scenarios do not have real consequences, potentially skewing moral reasoning.

Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality (1-9 years)- Kohlberg

• Stage 1: Obeying to avoid punishment.

• Stage 2: Self-interest; moral decisions are based on personal benefit.

Level 2: Conventional Morality (most young people)-Kohlberg

• Stage 3: Conforming to group norms; morality is based on societal approval.

• Stage 4: Obeying authority and fulfilling one’s duty.

Post-conventional Morality (only 10% reach this)- Kohlberg

• Stage 5: Laws are seen as social contracts that may vary.

• Stage 6: Adherence to universal ethical principles; certain actions (e.g., killing) are universally deemed wrong.

Strengths- Kohlberg

• Similarities to Egocentrism: Stage 1 aligns with Piaget’s concept of egocentrism, highlighting developmental parallels.

• Factual Knowledge Correlation: Greater moral knowledge correlates with higher levels of moral reasoning, as noted by Willingham.

Weaknesses- Kohlberg

• Artificiality of Stories: Like Piaget, Kohlberg used hypothetical scenarios, which may not capture real moral reasoning (lacks ecological validity).

• Gender Bias: Carol Gilligan criticized Kohlberg’s theory for being based on a male-only sample, arguing it doesn’t adequately represent female moral reasoning.