CA368 Exam 2

What is the Elaboration Likelihood Model?

What is the Elaboration Likelihood Model?

A dual processing model that highlights the processes by which persuasion occurs. It stipulates that there are two ways people process communications: central and peripheral.

ELM - Elaboration the extent to which the individual thinks about or mentally modifies arguments contained in the communication

Elaboration also depends on ability. External distraction reduces elaboration b/c hurts ability. Low elaboration also depends on levels of intelligence. If one knows more about the issue, you elaborate more than if you don't know about the issue. If the message is too difficult to comprehend, people give up.

ELM - Reasons to be motivated (increased elaboration)

Personal Relevance Accountability Ambivalence High need for cognition Forewarning

ELM - Effects of multitasking External distraction reduces elaboration b/c hurts ability

When we multitask, we have a limited capacity for processing a message which reduces comprehension and counter arguing.

Central and Peripheral routes

central = considerable cognitive elaboration and evaluation (actively think about message, analyze it and make informed decision)

Peripheral = the message is examined quickly and focus is on simple cues to help decisions

What factors lead to processing in the central or peripheral route?

- Motivation and ability (both are needed)

• Its not possible to process everything centrally so we take shortcuts

• Individuals are high in involvement when they believe an issue is personally relevant or bears directly on their own lives = central

• Individuals are low involvement when they believe that an issue has little/no impact on themselves = peripheral

Need for cognition

Different individuals have different tendency to engage in and enjoy cognitive effort.

• Personality trait.

Accountability

Accountability for judging messages increases elaboration

When you feel like people are likely to call you upon the issue, or ask your opinion about the issue, this will motivate you to know more about the issue.

knowledge

More issue relevant knowledge increases elaboration while lower intelligence about the issue reduces it

ability

the ability to process the message. different situations can have or hamper an individual's ability to process a message. affected by cognitive activity.

motivation

Personal relevance Accountability Ambivalence High need for cognition Forewarning

personal relevance

how important an issue is to someone who is being persuaded If an issue pertains to you, you're going to put more central thought into it

If there is a high relevance, strong arguments become stronger and weak arguments seem weaker.

How are attitudes formed through the Central route different from attitudes formed through the Peripheral?

Central route: more accessible, resistant to change, more likely to guide behavior, more stable and persistent over time, greater perceived validity of attitude

Peripheral route: relatively simple and low effort, use of simple cues and hueristics

What factors increase motivation and what factors increase ability to use central route?

Motivation -Personal relevance -Accountability -Ambivalence -High need for cognition -Forewarning

Ability -issue relevant knowledge -messages repetition -external distraction will reduce elaboration -lower intelligence will reduce elaboration

• messages that are difficult to understand reduces elaboration

How can central processing be biased or rational?

Rational — When issue is personally relevant

Biased — When persuasion is foreshadowed and you already have strong attitudes, if you believe the persuasion will contradict your attitudes you are more likely to be biased because you will think of counterarguments in advance.

You believe that you formed your own attitude carefully, so believe it to be the most valid belief.

You believe that your attitude is a valid attitude because you did things like research and become very knowledgeable towards that subject therefore you are unaccepting of other arguments.

Senior Comprehensive Study

Personal Relevance personal relevance comes into play if the senior has to take the exam to graduate.

effective next year: more central process, can recognize weak arguments and strong arguments -weak: it would make parents happy. causes less attitude change. -strong: it would raise the prestige of the university. causes more attitude change.

effective in 10 years: -less central processing -no big differences between weak and strong arguments. -recognize levels of expertise instead of arguments, picked high over low expertise.

• expertise is the peripheral cue used (picked Princetown commentary over a low expertise newspaper)

What is the Heuristic/Systematic model?

The model states that individuals can process messages in one of two ways: heuristically or systematically. The guiding belief with this model is that individuals are more apt to minimize their use of cognitive resources thus affecting the intake and processing of messages. The whole theory relies on this idea that individuals will first process heuristically and if they do not reach sufficiency then they will move on to process systematically

What is the sufficiency threshold?

the point at which cognitive processing stops and/or you begin to have high confidence in your opinion, no need for more persuading to maintain this belief

What is the principle of least effort?

people prefer less effortful to more effortful modes of info processing

How does Desired Level of confidence affect the amount of processing?

Heuristic: when there is little or no discrepancy between desired level of confidence and actual confidence level

Systematic: when there a large discrepancy between desired level and actual level

Increased discrepancy between actual and desired level increases systematic processing

Understand and define the Motivations for Processing Accuracy.

wanting to provide accurate info, back up attitude so you can talk about the issue (same as ELM that you want to hold attitudes that are accurate)

Defense - wanting to defend personal beliefs, more about winning (don't care if its correct but rather engage in argument)

Impression - wanting to keep face/hold attitudes that are socially acceptable, satisfy goals (such as status)

Management - wanting to manage relationships

What is the Cognitive Response Approach?

The cognitive response model suggests that effective messages should take into account factors that are likely to enhance positive cognitive responses to the receivers.

Counterarguments, in contrast, are negative cognitive responses that prohibit persuasion.

How does cognitive response model apply to ELM?

more elaboration does not necessarily mean more persuasive. cognitive model is the

elaboration model on the more central end of processing --> intermediate step.

What are cognitive responses?

A repsonse that requires thought

What are counterarguments?

Countering the source's persuasive argument

Under what situations will a person generate more counterarguments?

When forming negative thoughts, forewarning, when feeling like their freedom is threatened

How does forewarning affect persuasion?

Forewarning = telling someone that someone will try to persuade them.

It reduces persuasion as one is aware that someone is trying to persuade them

It increases someone's counter arguments when the message is important to them,

It increases defensiveness and biased cognitive responses (esp when someone has time to prepare rebuttal...it therefore increases central processing)

What is inoculation theory?

weak attacks and then counterarguments builds resistance to later attacks because 1. we are motivated to defend position and 2. we have some practice

• says you need to expose people to arguments against truisms so they can think about counterarguments

• you have an attitude that you don't think is vulnerable to attack and when someone attacks it even weakly you become motivate to practice against people countering your belief.

Characteristic of political debates and campaign ads

• here is what the opponent will tellyou and here how how to respond to that

• if its a belief you've never had to defend, then you prob dont have a counterargument to attack Weak attacks and counterarguments build resistance to later attacks because:

• we are motivate to defend position

• we have practice and time

What is cultural truism?

things you accept and do not question. positions you must likely have not had to defend.

"veggies are healthy" "brush your teeth"

What is a Threat and how does it affect persuasion?

Forewarning that a possible position may be attacked; attitude is vulnerable -Increases motivation to counterargue -Threat provides motivation -The attitude may be attacked at some point

what is refutational preemption?

Replying to counterarguments or attacks before they occur (or before audience hears them); providing receivers with specific arguments

Refutational preemption provides ability You are essentially stopping the attack before it starts

This is person is likely to attack your attitude but I'm going to give you counter arguments that you can use

"Stealing the thunder" is a political/rhetorical version or a refutational preemption

How does Distraction affect Cognitive Responses?

Distraction prevents elaboration; due to humor, sex, music, lots of images. -People remember the message, they just don't elaborate. -Encourages peripheral route.

-Strong Arguments: distraction takes away from central processing which would therefore make strong arguments weaker, if your arguments are strong, you don't want your target distracted -Weak Arguments: distraction causes fewer negative negative cognitive responses and more persuasion

What is likeableness?

likeability: A likeable person makes you feel good and the positive feelings become transferred to the message -a likeable persuader puts you in a good mood, which helps you access positive thoughts about the product the persuader is peddling -a likeable speaker may convey that she has your interest at heart, which communicates goodwill

how and why does likeableness persuade?

Lowers defenses due to attraction or distraction -It is a trigger feature that motivates compliance with requests -Pay more attention -like them better -feel reward value of interaction -identify with them and aspire to be them -Association attractive person with requests

What factors cause a person to like a source more?

Physical attractiveness Similarity Compliments Cooperation Association

What is social identity theory?

Identity from/through group membership

• Boosts self-esteem to be attached to winning group

Persuaders will try to identify with same [successful] group to increase compliance

EX. Don't mess with Texas campaign

What is the minimum group paradigm?

Will favor others who share the most trivial and inconsequential criteria as we do (same birthday ex (??))

How does Physical Attractiveness affect Liking?

The more physically attractive a person is the more likely it is that you will like him/her due to Halo Effect

If a person has a positive attribute, we assume they have more positive attributes.

We pay more attention, give them positive feedback → Self-fulfilling prophecy

How does attractiveness persuade?

We are more likely to comply w/attractive people's requests b/c we...

• pay more attention to message

• like them better

• reward value of interaction

• associate attractive person with request

How can physical attractiveness backfire?

Lack of credibility--not real Too attractive/highly attractive people - unfavorable upward comparison

Why are physically attractive people more persuasive?

Halo effect pay more attention like them better reward value of interaction Identify with them and aspire

What is the Halo Effect?

More attractive people are perceived to be more credible, extraverted, knowledgeable, friendly, and competent

A method of how we process stimuli

What is a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy and how does it relate to Likeableness and attractiveness?

Study about women/pictures and phone calls with men

Men talk with attractive women are more patient and nice

What is a para-social relationship?

Projecting intimacy onto a performer; one way interaction/relationship Ex) A friendship with a fictitious character on TV, in media or a relationship with a celebrity Ex) Footwear study: celebrity pictures activated parts of the brain associated with affection

Similarity

We like people who are similar to us b/c it reinforces out self concept. In relation to opinions, personality traits, background

Compliments

Tend to be very effective even if the flatterer stands to gain something from flattery

Humans have a "craving to be appreciated

Can be used honestly, doesn't have to be unethical

Can be transparent in motives and still have successful persuasion with compliments

Association

Association with either good or bad things will influence how react to something Ex) Car experiment: women standing next to car = people perceive it as better, more expensive, special than car w/o model next to it Ex) Luncheon experiment: people are more easily persuaded when eating

What is the Luncheon Technique?

You are more persuasive when you bring someone out to lunch while trying to convince them of something because they are comfortable and well fed, provided the food is good quality

What is mere exposure?

the more we see something, the more we like it; taught to like/hate

How does cooperation affect liking?

Example: robber's Cave Boy's camp

• summer camp split into random groups

• interacted in competitive activities and each group began to hate each other

• then, in cooperative situations, the hate totally went away and they worked together.

What are Jigsaw learning?

Way to accomplish even in school environment

• shows that mere exposure will increase liking of other people

• when everyone is given a different piece of info and you can't get all the info unless everyone shares the info with everyone else. you need peers to succeed and you must cooperate to get all the info Took students who normally wouldn't interact (diverse classes) & had to cooperate to write a paper about the same topic --> Liking increased significantly!

What are some ways to avoid being persuaded by Likeableness techniques?

Ask why is this person suggesting this similarity to me?

Feeling that we have come to like a compliance professional more quickly or more deeply than we would have expected?

Mentally separate person from business transaction

Why are celebrities good sources for persuasion?

Idealized self→ increases brand recognition

Using the celebrity endorsed brand helps us take on behaviors of that celebrity. Can work negatively (when too attractive)

Para-social relationship

What is transference with celebrity sources?

Subconsciously transplant our feelings of a celebrity onto a product or brand

The belief that you will have the same traits as a celebrity if you use their product ie: Taylor Swift's perfume

What is Credibility?

the attitude toward a source of communication held at a given time by a receiver

listening to a source because they have expertise or the possibility of trustworthiness

The target's perception that source is a good source of information

How and why does Credibility persuade?

expertise lack of vested interest trustworthiness

What makes a source Credible?

Position of authority, perception of power, the way a person dresses, occupation, prior experience

What is viral marketing?

People who promote product have no vested interest in product

Creating an interesting video that people see it, they are willing to share it with friends.

Why does Viral Marketing make a message more persuasive?

You know the video is from other organizations, but you get the video from your friends. Since you know your friends do not have vested interest, your defenses are down.

What is Undercover Marketing?

Assuming someone has no vested interest in promoting product, but they actually do

Carrying the cooler of energy drink around the campus. --> Pretend not having vested interest

When can viral marketing be also undercover?

Ex: Stranger kissing video was really promoting a fashion designer

How does Undercover Marketing make a message more persuasive?

People are less defensive when they think there's no vested interest

What is the Knowledge Bias?

When someone is expected to hold a certain position/attitude about certain issues due to background

If you violate the knowledge bias → more credible because it's not what is expected.

Ex: someone might expect I would support women's rights because I am a woman.

what is reporting bias?

What you choose to report or not report Ex: a politician who says he believes one thing but then changes stance to garner more votes

What are some ways to avoid being persuaded by Credibility techniques?

Ask: Is the expert clearly identified? is the person really an expert or someone who is merely quoted because of his or her prestige, popularity, or celebrity status? Does the judgement put forward fall within the field of competence of the expert? Is there consensus among the experts as to the judgement or opinion? Could the expert cite objective evidence to support her or his claim? is the expert trustworthy and unbiased?

How can use of real people or consumer generated advertising increase credibility?

By reducing feeling of vested interest.

Real people: -Feel like they believe what they are selling

• Don't look like models, but real people using the products

Consumer generated advertising:

• Advertising that allows everyday people to participate in the campaign

• adds element of authenticity and credibility

• EX: people create video for Doritos for the Superbowl

How is internal credibility different from source credibility?

Internal credibility has testable credentials

Ex: Snapple-KKK rumor people said theres "evidence" and said that theres a slave ship on the front and a tiny K with a circle that is a sign of the Klan

What is a testable credential? Confidence heuristic?

Testable credential = Test it yourself

Confidence heuristic: if someone's confidence is high, we believe they are probably right; if they are less certain, we feel they are less reliable.

What is the difference between undercover marketing, word of mouth marketing, and viral marketing

Undercover marketing — A type of advertisement using actors in real-life settings to make them appear to be average people.

Word of Mouth marketing — The act of one consumer talking to another about a brand, can be traditional or electronic, consider to be more believable because it rarely involves advertising or sales pitches.

Viral Marketing — A form of WOM marketing that aims to result in a message spreading exponentially.

What is Scarcity?

The attractiveness of an object can be increased by making it appear scarce and unavailable.

How and why does Scarcity persuade?

Scarcity enhances value or desirability (ex: diamonds)

• Losses are more painful than gains are pleasurable

• Often, things that are more scarce are more attractive or valuable

• Scarcity is a trigger cue (Scarcity => valuable)

People want the social, psychological economic benefits of rare items -status -wealth

Psychological reactance towards limited freedoms

• Romeo and Juliet effect (this means that couples that have parental interference have increased feelings of love due to psychological reactance against their parents wish to split them up)

• censorship

When is Scarcity more effective?

Newly experienced scarcity is more powerful as a persuasive technique

• most likely to find revolution where a period economic improvement is followed by a short, sharp reversal

when something is scarce due to social demand

• Combined scarcity and social proof; plus enhances competition

Deadlines

Scare prospects into thinking they can't have the product or this price later, so buy it now!

precious mistakes

Printing mistake stamp (inverted Jenny): worth over half a million dollar

Limited Numbers Loss Leader Effect:

once a certain number of limited items have run out, you are more likely to buy something else if you get there and all those limited items are gone- limited items are sort of bait to get the people in the store

Restriction Censorship

(you're being kept out) "Hear the truth the government doesn't want you to know" - documentary Can be explained by Psychological Reactance

What is Psychological Reactance?

Romeo/Juliet effect increased feelings for each other when parents disapprove

Kids: "You cannot have broccoli, it is an adult food" / pull ups

• Wanted to eat broccoli, wanted pull up when it was out of reach

Experiment: 2 year old played with toys, but one was covered in plexiglass

• Wanted to play with the toy that was in plexiglass immediately after plexiglass was removed because it was once restricted

How does Censorship affect persuasion?

Reaction to banned information is a greater desire for that information and a more favorable attitude towards it

Ex: Censored speech opposing coed dorms (not allowed to give speech) --Students opposed coed dorms even without hearing the speech because they knew the speech was banned --More desirable when it's out of reach

What is Exclusivity?

Example: hot stock tip from "someone in the know", or "by invitation only" --> Information is more desirable

Closing time at a bar - why were patrons increasingly more attractive?

• "Mere exposure effect" - being in sight makes objects/people more attractive Simply being exposed to individuals throughout an evening should make them more attractive

• commodity theory: which would predict that as opposite-sex patrons in the possibility pool left the pub or paired up, opposite-sex participants would become fewer. Indeed, because the bar was closing the opportunity to interact became more scarce as midnight approached. Therefore, the opposite-sex patrons became more desirable as the evening continued.

What are some ways to avoid being persuaded by Scarcity techniques?

Cognitive processes are suppressed by emotional reaction to scarcity--use emotional arousal as a cue (experience anxiety and anxiousness)

Ask: why do I want this? to possess something rare or for its utility value?

Why is newly experienced scarcity more persuasive?

Newly-experienced scarcity has a greater impact on our assessment of worth than constant scarcity.

Cookie Experiment

Shows that newly experienced scarcity = most effective Cookie experiment:

• two cookies vs 10 reduced to two cookies

• subject see 10 cookies and then is only offered two cookies vs someone who is offered only two cookies w/o seeing 10

• shows that we value newly experienced scarcity and its more persuasive Ex: revolutions more likely after brief economic improvement followed by sharp downturn (taken away from people, causes more emotional reaction to event)

Social demand and scarcity Combines scarcity and social proof

Adds competition: auction, realtors, loss leaders

How does persuaders create FOMO to increase their persuasiveness

Consumers believe something is available to them for a limited time.

What is Authority?

Power that derives from the communicator's role in a social structure and his or her ability to dispense rewards or punishments

How and why does Authority persuade

people are trying to avoid punishment or get rewards from the authority -Mostly rewarding to us -Generally great benefit to society

• strong socialization towards obedience (learned young)

What conveys authority?

Titles:doctor, judge, professor -uniform and formal dress -asymmetrical touching, authority can touch but not other way around -steepling of hand -pointing at another person -relaxation -eye contact

Authority terms: Gestures Touching Eye contact Gestures: Posture, feet/leg movement, hand movement/positioning, eye movement

Touching: Authority figure can touch but you do not touch an authority figure (think of example she gave about boss touching shoulder)

Eye-Contact: If have more authority will make more eye contact when talking and less when listening (asymmetrical)

What are Milgram's Obedience to Authority Studies?

testing compliance to authority

participants assigned to be the teacher or the learner. when learner failed to complete task, teacher was ordered to deliver a shock. Shock levels increased each time.

Milgram's results

Person delivering shock was more likely to comply in presence of authority figure

• after hearing pre-recorded screams that they thought came from the learner, the teacher indicated that they wanted to check on the learner

• exhibited signs of stress and conflicted emotions about continuing the experiment

• Over 65% of people shocked "learner" to the highest level

Under what conditions did subjects in Milgram's studies not obey the experimenter?

Authority is reduced when: -conflicting experimenters - don't know who to listen to, want to obey the one with the most authority -other subjectsdo not obey experimenter -experimenter insists on stopping shocks but -learner wants to continue fellow subject is assigned as experimenter (experimenter is reading a script) -authority figure is not physically in the room (teacher tells experimenter he shocks learner via telephone but didn't actually do it)

What were the results of a replication in 2009 of Milgram's studies?

Nearly exactly the same results as original experiment

Shock to 150 instead of 450 is dif in experiment

What were the results of other studies studying obedience to authority (like the sensory deprivation study or the verbal aggression study).

Sensory deprivation results: Most people indicated that they would do the right thing, but predicted that others would do the wrong thing and obey the authority figure. In actuality, most people obeyed the authority figure despite the ethical problems with the experiment. Most of us believe we are guided by moral principles and would do "the right thing"; Participants who actually wrote the letters cited "external forces" as their reason for obeying the researcher.

NEED VERBAL Aggression STUDY

What factors reduce obedience to Authority?

If enough people resist. Weakened authority

What are some ways to avoid being persuaded by Authority?

Ask yourself: what do I believe?

What I really want to do? How will I feel tomorrow if I realize I could have respected my own belief

Heightened awareness of how easily we obey authority

awareness of how easily authority can be faked

awareness that authority figures can be wrong

ask: what makes this person an authority? what do they stand to gain by my compliance? what happens if I don't comply

How does synchrony related to obedience to authority?

synchronous movement and destructive obedience increased conformity and compliance

from study: when walked in step with experimenter more likely to kill the bugs

What is fear?

two elements: threat and efficacy

How and why does fear persuade?

If people feel susceptible to the fear provided and have an actionable way to solve this fear, they can be persuaded to perform these actions to control the dangers affecting them

Under what conditions is Fear most effective?

when you feel like it is possible and could happen to you susceptible and able to be corrected

What are the characteristics of an Effective Fear Message?

Must control danger

Enough fear to make the target feel in danger, but not so much that the target feels there is nothing he/she can do to stop it