Social Organization, Kinship, and Gender Structures

Institution

Structured social order that governs behavior, including family, economy, politics, and religion.

Mode of Production

The way a society organizes production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

Means of Production

The physical and non-human resources (land, labor, tools, and technology) used to produce goods.

Relations of Production

The social relationships that determine access to and control over means of production (e.g., kin-based economies, feudalism, capitalism).

Foraging

Hunting, gathering, and fishing; small, mobile bands with low population density; highly sustainable but dependent on environmental conditions.

Pre-industrial Agriculture

Small-scale farming relying on human and animal labor without mechanization.

Pastoralism

Raising and herding livestock; common in arid and semi-arid regions.

Industrialism

Large-scale, mechanized production with reliance on fossil fuels and global trade networks.

Group Size of San Foragers

Small, flexible bands of 25-50 individuals.

Mobility of San Foragers

Seasonal movement based on water and food availability.

Gathering vs. Hunting

Women primarily gather plant foods (bulk of diet), men hunt for protein; cooperation and food sharing ensure survival.

Leisure & Health in Foraging Societies

More leisure time compared to agricultural societies; lower rates of disease and malnutrition due to diverse diet.

Sharing & Survival

Egalitarian system where resources are shared to maintain group cohesion.

Domestication

Process of selecting species with desirable traits for human use.

Effects of Domestication

Transition from nomadic lifestyles to sedentary communities, increased food production, and social stratification.

Slash and Burn (Swidden) Agriculture

Land is cleared, cultivated, then left to regenerate.

Intercropping

Planting multiple crops together to enhance soil fertility.

Fallow Period

Allowing land to rest to restore nutrients.

Use of Technology in Intensive Agriculture

Irrigation, fertilizers, terracing.

Wet-Rice Agriculture

High-yield, labor-intensive system practiced in Asia.

Intensification

Increased output through high-input techniques.

Transhumance

Seasonal movement of herds.

Energy & Efficiency in Industrialism

High energy consumption but increased productivity.

Market Principle

Prices determined by supply and demand.

Redistribution

Collection and reallocation of goods (e.g., taxation, potlatch ceremonies).

Reciprocity

Generalized: Altruistic giving without expecting immediate return; Balanced: Equal exchange between partners over time; Negative: One party gains at the expense of another.

Potlatch

Competitive feast where wealth is redistributed.

Egalitarian Societies

Minimal ranking, equal access to resources.

Ranked Societies

Some individuals/groups have higher prestige but not much wealth disparity.

Stratified Societies

Institutionalized wealth and power inequalities.

Karl Marx's Class Struggle

Conflict between owners (bourgeoisie) and workers (proletariat).

Base & Superstructure

Economy (base) shapes society's legal, political, and ideological institutions.

Alienation

Workers become disconnected from the products of their labor.

Forms of Capital (Pierre Bourdieu)

Economic Capital: Financial wealth and assets; Social Capital: Networks and connections; Cultural Capital: Education, knowledge, and cultural skills.

Cultural Capital

Education, knowledge, and cultural skills.

Habitus

Socially ingrained habits and dispositions.

Field

Arenas where power and resources are contested.

Moka Exchange

Competitive gift-giving system among Bigmen in Papua New Guinea.

Bigmen

Leaders in Moka Exchange who give large gifts to gain prestige.

Enduring Diffuse Solidarity

Kinship ties persist across generations and are reinforced by mutual obligations.

Kin Terms

Different societies classify relatives using distinct systems.

Eskimo System

Emphasizes the nuclear family, with separate terms for each relative.

Hawaiian System

Uses the same terms for relatives of the same generation.

Iroquois System

Distinguishes between parallel cousins and cross cousins.

Biological Kin Types

Universal symbols used to classify kin (e.g., M = mother, F = father).

Nuclear Family

A household consisting of parents and their children.

Extended Family

Includes additional relatives, often living together or maintaining strong connections.

Bilateral Descent

Tracing lineage through both maternal and paternal sides equally.

Unilineal Descent

Tracing lineage through only one parent's side.

Patrilineal

Inheritance and family name pass through the father's line.

Matrilineal

Inheritance and kinship ties pass through the mother's line.

Kindred

An individual's network of bilateral relatives; flexible and ego-centered.

Lineage

A corporate kin group tracing descent from a known ancestor.

Clan

A larger kinship group that claims common descent from a mythical ancestor.

Corporate Groups

Kin-based units that collectively own property, rights, or responsibilities.

Genitor

Biological father.

Pater

Socially recognized father.

Functions of Marriage

Establishes alliances between groups and ensures the legitimacy of offspring.

Affines

Relatives gained through marriage.

Incest Taboo

Cultural prohibitions against sexual relationships between close kin.

Monogamy

One spouse at a time.

Polygamy

Multiple spouses.

Polygyny

One man, multiple wives.

Polygyny

One man, multiple wives (e.g., Maasai of Kenya).

Polyandry

One woman, multiple husbands (e.g., some Himalayan societies).

Fraternal Polyandry

Helps preserve land and resources within families, reduces population growth and prevents land fragmentation.

Primogeniture

Eldest son inherits the estate; common in European and Asian aristocracies.

Exogamy

Marriage outside one's social group (enhances alliances).

Endogamy

Marriage within one's group (preserves status, wealth, or cultural identity).

Caste System of India

Endogamous system where marriages occur within social caste boundaries.

Matrilocal Residence

Couple lives with the wife's family.

Patrilocal Residence

Couple lives with the husband's family.

Neolocal Residence

Couple establishes a new, independent household.

Bridewealth

Transfer of wealth from the groom's family to the bride's family.

Dowry

Transfer of wealth from the bride's family to the groom's family.

Bride Service

Groom works for bride's family as compensation for marriage.

Kinship

Some societies define kinship through social roles rather than biological ties.

Nuer 'ghost marriage'

A man's brother may marry on his behalf if he dies without an heir.

Matrilateral Kin

Relatives on the mother's side.

Patrilateral Kin

Relatives on the father's side.

Parallel Cousins

Children of same-sex siblings (e.g., father's brother's children, mother's sister's children).

Cross Cousins

Children of opposite-sex siblings (e.g., father's sister's children, mother's brother's children); often preferred marriage partners in some societies.

Ascending Generation

Ancestors (e.g., grandparents, great-grandparents).

Descending Generation

Offspring (e.g., children, grandchildren).

Ego's Own Generation

Siblings and cousins of the same generation.

Band

Small, kin-based groups with informal leadership; decision-making by consensus; highly egalitarian.

Tribe

Larger groups with more formalized leadership, but no centralized authority; based on kinship ties.

Chiefdom

Centralized leadership with a hereditary chief who has authority over multiple communities.

State

Bureaucratic governance with codified laws, taxation, and military enforcement.

4th World Peoples

Indigenous or stateless groups that exist within larger nation-states but lack political recognition or sovereignty.

Segmentary Lineage

A kinship-based system where political organization is structured through nested, hierarchical kin groups.

Conflict Resolution

Disputes are mediated through kin alliances, preventing centralized control.

Pantribal Sodalities

Non-kin-based social groups that extend across different tribes, often forming alliances.

Age Grades

Stages of life with specific social roles (e.g., youth, warrior, elder).

Age Sets

Groups of individuals who pass through life stages together.

Egalitarianism

Equal access to resources, common in foraging societies.

Ascribed Status

Status assigned at birth (e.g., caste systems, hereditary leadership).

Achieved Status

Status earned through personal accomplishments.

Role & Status Set

A person's expected behaviors and positions within a social system.

Strata & Class

Hierarchical divisions based on access to wealth and power.