Chapter Two: Anatomy Lecture Exam 1

Matter

any physical substance that has mass and takes up space (volume)

all living and non-living things are composed of matter

3 Types of Matter

solid, liquid, and gas

Solid

shape and volume are definite

high density, hard to expand/compress

Liquid

definite volume, shape is changeable

high density, hard to expand/compress

Gas

shape and volume are changeable

low density, easy to expand/compress

Elements

the simplest type of matter with unique chemical properties

96% of human body weight

oxygen (65%), carbon (22%), hydrogen (10%), nitrogen (3%)

Atoms

are the smallest particle of an element that has the chemical properties of that element

each element is composed of only 1 type of atom

Proton

component of an atomic nucleus with a positive charge and a mass of one amu, located in the nucleus

Neutron

component of an atomic nucleus with no charge and a mass of one amu, located in the nucleus

Electron

component of an atom with a negative charge and a mass of 1/2000 amu, located in region outside the nucleus

Atomic Structure

the + charge of a proton and the - charge of an electron are equal in magnitude

the number of protons and electrons in each atom are equal

Nucleus

location of protons and neutrons within the atom

Electron Cloud

location of electrons within the atom

electrons move continuously around the nucleus

occupy the most volume of the atom

Atomic Number

represents the total number of protons in an atomic nucleus

ex. hydrogen has one proton, carbon 6, oxygen 8

Mass Number

99.7% of an atoms mass is found in the nucleus

equal to the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus (N = A-Z)

Isotopes

two or more forms of the same element that have the same atomic number (number of protons) but different number of neutrons, resulting in different atomic mass

same atomic number, different mass number

Electronegativity

ability of an atom’s nucleus to attract electrons

Ionic Bond

transfer of electrons

atoms are electrically neutral, equal number of protons and electrons

high electronegative difference=

Cation

positively charged ion

loss of an electron

Anion

negatively charged ion

gain of an electron

Non-Polar Covalent

equal sharing of electrons

same electronegativity

the nucleus attracts the electron of another atom

Molecules

chemical combination of two or more atoms that acts as an independent unit

Polar Covalent Bond

electrons shared unequally

different electronegativities

the nucleus of one atom attracts electrons more strongly than the other

ex. H2O

Compound

chemical combination of two or more different atoms

all compounds are molecules, not all molecules are compounds

Intermolecular Forces

forces between molecules resulting from weak electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged parts of molecules, or between ions and molecules

Hydrogen Bonds

occur when the + charged hydrogen of one molecule is attracted to the - charged oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine of another molecule

weakest bond

Solubility

ability of one substance to dissolve in another, charged substances and polar substances readily dissolve in water, non-polar substances do not ex. glucose and NaCl both dissolve in water while oil sits on the surface

Dissociation

when ionic compounds dissolve in water, they break apart into smaller, simpler constituents, such as ions, atoms, and radicals, reversible, cations attracted to the - charged (O) ends of H2O molecules, anions attracted to the + charged (H) ends of the H2O molecules

Non-electrolytes Dissociation

solutions made by molecules that do not dissociate

do not conduct electricity

Electrolytes Dissociation

cations and anions that dissociate in water, have the capacity to conduct electricity that can be detected by electrodes, maintaining proper electrolyte balance is vital to: regulating pH. neuromuscular function, and regulating hydration

Chemical Reactions

occur when chemical bonds between atoms, ions, molecules, or compounds are broken, rearranged, or formed

Reactants

substances that enter into the chemical reaction

Products

substances that result from the chemical reaction

Synthesis

two or more reactants combine to form a more complex product, chemical bonds are made, energy is stored in the bonds, growth, maintenance, and repair of the body, result in the production of the complex molecules that are characteristic of life: ATP, proteins, carbs, lipids, nucleic acids

Anabolism

all synthesis reactions that occur within the body

Primary (Dehydration) Synthesis Reaction

reaction in which water is formed as a product

Decomposition

a larger reactant is chemically broken down into two or more products, chemical bonds are broken and energy is released, results in: digestion of food molecules in the intestines and cells and breakdown of fat stores, foreign matter, microorganisms

Catabolism

decomp reactions that occur within the body

Decomposition (hydrolysis) Reaction

reaction in which water is a reactant, water dissolution

Reversible Reactions

where the reaction can proceed in both directions A + B = AB and AB = A + B

Equilibrium

occurs when the rate of products formation is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction

the amount of reactants and products remain constant

Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reaction

reactants that result from the transfer of electrons between species

complete or partial loss of an electron by one substance is accompanied by the gain of that electron by another substance

synthesis and decomp reactions can also be redox

Oxidation Reaction

loss of an electron by an atom

Reduction Reaction

gain of an electron by an atom

Energy

the capacity to do work (move matter)

neither created or destroyed

one type of energy can be changed into another

if the potential energy in the chemical bonds of the products of a chemical reaction is greater than that of the reactants, the reaction required energy to proceed

Potential Energy

energy that could do work but is not doing so

stored within chemical bonds, released when bonds are broken

Kinetic Energy

form of energy that actually does work

Mechanical Energy

energy resulting from the position or movement of objects

moving, breathing, circulating blood

Chemical Energy

energy stored in bonds of atoms and molecules, released during chemical reactions when substances transform into new ones

Heat Energy

energy that flows between objects that are different temps

body temp maintained by heat produced as a byproduct of metabolism (chemical reactions)

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

stores, provides, and transfers energy within the body

immediate energy source for the cell

all energy requiring reactions cease when there is inadequate ATP

Rates of Reactions

molecules are constantly in motion and have kinetic energy

chemical reactions occur when molecules with sufficient amounts of kinetic energy collide with the proper orientation

Activation Energy

the minimum amount of energy reactants must have for a reaction to take place

temp: increased temp increases the likelihood of a chemical reaction

concentration: increased concentration increases the likelihood of reactant coming into contact with one another

Acid

a compound that donates a H+ to another compound (a base)

HCl = H+ + Cl-

Base

a compound that binds (accepts) a H+

NaOH = Na+ + OH-

Strong Acids/Bases

release almost all H+ or OH-

ionize/dissociate completely

highly reactive

Weak Acids/Bases

dissociate only partially when dissolved in water

only release some of their H+ or OH-

pH Scale

ranges from 0-14

0 = high H+

14 = low H+

measures acidity or alkalinity of a solution

Alkaline (Basic) Solution

lower concentration of H+ than OH-

pH > 7.0

Acidic Solution

higher concentration of H+ than OH-

pH < 7.0

pH

normal pH range for human blood is 7.35-7.45

slightly basic or alkaline

Acidosis

results if blood pH drops below 7.35

the nervous system become depressed

Alkalosis

results if blood pH rises above 7.45

the nervous system becomes over-excitable

Salts

compounds consisting of a cation other than H+ and anion other than OH-

formed by the neutralization reaction in which the H+ of the acid are replaced by the cations of the base

HCl + NaOH = NaCl + H2O

Buffers

chemicals that resist changes in solution when either an acid or base is added to the solution

chemical behavior of many molecules changes as the pH of the solution they are dissolved in changes

survival depends on the ability to maintain body fluid pH with a normal range

highly homeostatic

Inorganic Chemistry

primarily concerned with non-carbon-containing substances, water (H2O), oxygen (O2), calcium phosphate, metal ions, includes exceptions: carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and bicarbonate (HCO3-)

Organic Chemistry

concerned with substances that contain carbon

usually have cabon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonding

Blood Gases: Oxygen (O2)

consists of two oxygen atoms connected by a double covalent bond

20.63% of gas in the atmosphere

required by humans for cellular respiration, energy production, and metabolic processes

Blood Gases: Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

consists of one carbon atom bound to two oxygen atoms

produced from the breakdown/metabolization of food molecules

toxic if it accumulates within the cells: elimination from the cells as a waste product in the blood and taken back to the lung and exhaled

Water (H2O)

polar nature of water allows other polar molecules to associate with it, water makes up

higher % in males due to lesser body fat, water properties in the body: body temp regulation, chemical reactions, protection, transport, and mixing medium

Hydrophilic Molecules

water-loving, attracted to water

Hydrophobic Molecules

water-fearing, not attracted to water

Water Body Temp

high heat capacity of water allows it to absorb and release large amounts of heat before changing body temp, blood can transfer heat from deep within the body to the bodies surface, sweating (evaporation) can also result in heat loss

Water Protection

acts as a lubricant or cushion to protect the body’s organs from damage

tears protects the surface of the eye from the eyelids, cerebrospinal fluid surrounds the brain and protects it from impacting the skull wall, all serous membranes

Water Chemical Reactions

most of the chemical reaction necessary for life do not take place unless the reacting molecules are dissolved in water

water also directly participated in many chemical reactions (dehydration and hydrolysis)

Water Transport

polar solvent properties: dissolves ionic substances, forms hydration layers around large charged molecules, and serves as the body’s major transport medium

blood transports nutrients, hormones, gases, and waste throughout the body

Water Mixing Medium

combination of two or more substances physically blended together but not chemically combined

Water Solution

a mixture in which the substances are uniformly distributed

Solute

that which dissolves in the solvent ex. salt water

Water Suspension

mixture containing materials that separate from each other unless they are continually physically blended together ex. RBC in plasma of blood

Water Colloid

mixture in which a dispersed substance or particle is unevenly distributed ex. proteins in interior of cell

Carbohydrates

composed primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in 1:2:1 ratio components of other organic molecules

can be broken down to provide energy

undigested provide bulk to feces

types: mono, di, and polysaccharides

Monosaccharides

simple sugars

building blocks of more complex carbs

glucose, fructose, and galactose

Glucose

blood sugar

major carb in the blood

major nutrient for most of the body’s cells

levels are tightly regulated by insulin

Disaccharides

two monosaccharides bound together through a dehydration reaction

sucrose, lactose, and maltose

glucose and fructose combine to form sucrose (table sugar)

Polysaccharides

many sugars

composed of many monosaccharides bound together to form long chains

glycogen, starch, and cellulose

Lipids

organic molecules composed primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

proportion of oxygen in lipids is less than carbs

lipids can be dissolved in non-polar solvents such as alcohol but remain relatively insoluble in water

Glycogen

polysaccharide composed of many glucose molecules

important energy storage: glucose can be metabolized rapidly for use by cells during exercise

stored in the liver and skeletal muscle

Lipids Roles

protection/insulation

regulation

structure

vitamins

energy

Lipid Types

fats or triglycerides

phospholipids

eicosanoids

steroids

fat-soluble vitamins

Fats/Triglycerides

ingested and broken down by hydrolysis reactions in cells to release energy that can be used by the cells, make up 95% of fats in the body

can be stored as fat if intake it too high

functions: energy source, protection, insulation

Saturated Fatty Acids

most contain 14-18 carbon atoms

saturation refers to the # of hydrogen atoms in the carbon chain

saturated fatty acids: contain only single covalent bonds between carbons

sources: beef, pork, whole milk, cheese, butter, eggs, and coconut and palm oil

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

contain one or more double covalent bonds between carbons

sources: peanut, olive, safflower, sunflower, corn, and fish oils

do not contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease

Phospholipids

chief structural components of cell membranes

polar phosphate containing end of the molecule is hydrophilic

non-polar fatty acid end of the molecule is hydrophobic

Eicosandoids

chemical derived from fatty acids that regulate physiological processes

made in most cells

important regulatory molecules: prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes

Steriods

carbon atoms bound together into four ring-like hydrocarbon structures

includes: cholesterol, bile salts, estrogen/progesterone, and testosterone

Cholesterol

vital because other steroid molecules are synthesized from it

it is an important component in cell membranes

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

includes: vitamins A, D, E, and K

stored in the liver and fatty tissues

eliminated from the system much more slowly than water-soluble vitamins

Proteins

contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen bound together by covalent (peptide) bonds