Final Exam:

nucleus

delimited, contains chromatins (chromosomes)

nucleolus

Dense area within nucleus which directs the synthesis and processing of rRNA and the assembly of rRNA and ribosomal proteins

free ribosomes…

synthesize nonsecretory and nonmembrane proteins

membrane bound ribosomes -

proteins made in the RER are often secreted or inserted in ER membrane as integral membrane proteins

ER

a continuous network of flattened sacs, tubules, and vesicles through the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, lipid synthesis

RER

protein processing (w/ ribosomes)

SER

drug detox, carb metabolism, Ca storage, steroid biosynthesis

golgi apparatus

location of further glycosylation and processing of side chains, sorted, and distributed to other location in the cell

lysosomes

has hydrolytic enzymes of pH 4-5 that degrades macromolecules by digesting contents and fusing w endosomes

membrane bound vesicles

transportation of secretory protein

cytoskeleton

protein fibers that maintain cell shape and move organelles around

peroxisomes

detoxifies harmful compounds, contains catalase for degrading H2o2

Mitochondria 

double membrane, inner fold = cristae that increae SA, interior matrix, has mtDNA and rDNA through binary fission

cilia

shorter arranged in rows, respiratory and fallopian tube epitheliums

flagella

long, single sperm tails

cell junctions

Specialized structures that connect adjacent cells and help in communication and adhesion

tight junctions

barrier, prevents leaking

adhesion junction

provides strength at stress points in cardiac muscle and skin

gap junctions

channel connect cells, allows direct ion flow in muscle

bacterial chromosomes

double stranded dna of a single circular chromosome = genetic material → support growth, cellular respiration, and reporduction

glycocalyx

(bacteria) exterior surface coating of slime/capsule that makes it harder for phagocytes to engulf the pathogen

most bacteria have ____ and/or ____

cell wall, cytoskeletal structures

most bacteria have a cell wall

maintain cell shape, important for cell growth, movement, and reproduction

most bacteria have cytoskeletal stuctures

provides shape and support to cell

plasmids

(some bacteria) small, circular DNA pieces that replicated independently to provide useful traits (ie antibiotic resistance)

endospores

(some bacteria) contributes to the resistance to survive

Gram Positive Characteristics

thicker peptidoglycan layer, present teichoic acid, and lipoteichoic acid

Gram Negative Characteristics

Thinner peptidoglycan layer, present LPS

How Gram Stain Works

Used to differentiate bacteria based on a cell wall and use as a tool in deciding treatment

color of GP from gram stain is

purple

color of GN from gram stain is

pink

endospores

(bacteria) a structure that provides high resistance to survive unfavorable conditions such as nutrient depletion, desiccation, and temp extremes

Naked virus has …

just the capsid

enveloped virus structure

enveloped - external covering of a capsid, usually a modified piece of a host’ cell membrane

-take a bit of cell membrane when they are released from a host cell

-can insert their own viral specific proteins into the membrane

-pleomorphic

Steps of viral replication

Adsorption, penetration, uncoating, synthesis, assembly, release

adsorption

attachment

penetration

entry

uncoating of …

entire genome or nucleocapsid

synthesis

replication and protein production

assembly

virus self assembly using parts manufactured during synthesis process

release

controlled by virus size and health of the host cell

Lysogenic conversion is when …

a bacterium acquires a new trait from its temperate phage (in other words, occasionally, phase genes in the bacterial chromosome chase the production of toxins/enzymes that the bacterium would not otherwise have

Mode of Actions of Antibiotics

Cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis inhibitors, metabolic antagonists, NA synthesis inhibition, cell membranes

Cell Wall Synthesis

PCVT: penicillin, cephalosporins, vancomycin, teicoplanin

Protein Synthesis 50s

McACE

macroslides, cephanicol, azithromycin, clarithromycin, erythromycin

Protein Synthesis 30s

TAGS - tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, gentamicin, streptomycin

Metabolic antagonists (folic acid)

sulfonamides / sufla drugs and trimethoprim

nucleic acid synthesis

quinolones

drugs that target cell membrane

polymyxin B, daptomycin

Mechanisms of drug resistance

PEDUM- preventing entry, efflux pumps, drug inactivation, use of alternative pathway, modification of target

preventing entry

drug cant bind to or penetrate pathogen, bacterial decrease in permeability

efflux pumps

actively transport drugs outta the bacterial cell

drug inactivation

chemical modification of drug by pathogen

use of alternative pathway

changes in the metabolic potential of the bacterial cell bypass of the processing being blocked by the antibiotic

modification of target

due to mutation → changed in the target

infection course

IPACC - incubation, prodromal, acute, convalescent, continuation

incubation period

initial contact w IA to appearance of symptoms

prodromal stage

earliest notable symptoms appear, vague feeling of discomfort: head and muscle aches, fatigue, upset stomach, general malaise

acute phase

present fever and specific SS

convalescent phase

infection and symptoms decline, many patients stop taking antibiotics during this period

continuation phase

(applicable to some) lingers for months, years, or indefinitely

latency

a dormant state of microbes in certain chronic infectious diseases

sequelae

long term or permanent damage to tissues or organs caused by infectious diease

how pathogens damage host cells and tissues

exoenzymes, exotoxins, endotoxins

exoenzymes examples

mucinase and hyaluronidase

mucinase

digests the protective coating on mucous membranes

hyaluronidase

digests the substance that cements animal cells tgt

exotoxins examples

botulinium toxin and enterotoxin

botilinum toxin

block the release of acetylcholine, produces a flaccid paralysis, re-engineered as Botox products

enterotoxin

affects the small intestine, dont need bacterial growth → diarrhea

enterotoxin examples (2)

cholera toxin and tetanus toxin

cholera toxin

disrupts the normal flow, of Na+ ions in the small intestine, large H2o secretion into the intestinal lumen follows, producing diarrhea, possible death from dehydration

tetanus toxin

blocks the release of glycine from inhibitory neurons

endotoxin structure

the lipid A portion from the LPS of all gram- negative species

endotoxins

causes fever and other systemic toxic effects

patterns of transmission (6)

VHIDV - vertical, horizontal, indirect, direct, vector, vehicle

vertical transmission

parent to offspring

horizontal transmission

one infected to another through a population

indirect

no contact with direct → pathogen to human w/o human touch

direct

pathogen to human directly

the 2 types of vector are

MB- mechanical and biological

mechanical vector

insect carries microbes to host on its body parts

biological vector

insect injects microbes into host; part of microbe life cycle completed in insect

vehicle transmission

indirect - natural, nonliving, material (air, h2o, soil, food)

zoonosis

an infection indigenous to animal but naturally transmissible to humans

1. some have multi-host environment

2. some have complex life cycles in the wild

prevalence of a disease

the total # of cases of a disease in a population

incidence

total # of new cases of a disease in a time period

morbidity

the # of person infected

mortality

the # of deaths

common source/point source

same exposure in the same event

propagated source

no common source, spread from person to person

monocytes

blood phagocytes that rapidly leave the circulation; mature into macrophages and dendritic cells

macrophages

large phagocytic cells, high capacity for killing microbes and cleaning lymphocytes, antigen presenting cells

dendritic cells

reside in tissues and MPS, process foreign matter and present it to lymphocytes, antigen presenting cells

T cells types

helper, regulatory, cytotoxic

helper t cells

activate macrophages, assist b cells processes, and help activate cytotoxic t cells

regulatory t cells

control the t cell response by secreting anti-inflammatory cytokines or preventing proliferation

cytotoxic t cells

lead to the destruction of infected host cells and other foreign cells

types of b cells

plasma, memory, regulatory

plasma b cells

secrete antibodies into the tissue and the blood