Politics Comp 1 - (Core Ideas) Liberalism

Individualism principle (1)

The primacy of the individual in society over any group

Freedom/liberty principle (1)

Ability & right to make decisions in your own interests based on your view of human nature

State principle (1)

It is ‘necessary’ to avoid disorder, but ‘evil’ as it as potential to remove individual liberty, thus should be limited

Rationalism principle (1)

Belief hat humans are rational creatures, capable of reason and logic

Equality/social justice principle (1)

Belief that individuals are of equal value and should be treated impartially and fairly by society

Liberal Democracy principle (1)

A democracy that balances the will of the people (elections) with limited gov (state) and a respect for civil liberties in society

Developmental individualism definition (1)

The idea that individual freedom is linked to human flourishing (atomism)

Egotistical individualism defintion (1)

Idea that individual freedom is associated with self-interest and self-reliance

Enabling state definition (1)

A larger state helps individuals to achieve their potential and be free

Equality of opportunity definition (1)

Idea that all individuals should have equal chances in life to rise and fall

Formal equality definition (1)

Idea that all individuals have the same legal and political rights in society

Foundational equality definition (1)

Rights that all humans have by virtue of being born which cannot be taken away

Harm principle definition (1)

Idea that all individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals (John Stuart Mill)

Keynesianism definition (1)

Economic system that requires gov involvement to stimulate economy to achieve full employment and price stability (John Maynard Keynes)

Laissez-faire capitalism definition (1)

Economic system organised by the market where goods are produced for exchange and profit, and wealth is privately owned

Limited government definition (1)

Where the roles of gov is limited by checks and balances, and a separation of powers, because of the corrupting nature of power

Mechanist theory definition (1)

Idea that state was created to serve the people and act in their interests

Meritocracy theory definition (1)

A society organised on the basis that success is based on ability and hard work

Minimal state definition (1)

Idea that the role of the state must be restricted to preserve individual liberty (‘night watchman state’)

Negative freedom definition (1)

The absence of external constraints in society, as well as no interference in the private sphere (“freedom from”)

Positive freedom definition (1)

Idea that freedom is about personal fulfilment and realisation of potential (“freedom to”)

Social contract definition (1)

Idea that the state/society is set up with the agreement from the people to respect its laws, which serve to protect them

Tolerance definition (1)

A willingness to accept values, customs and beliefs with which one disagrees

Tensions summary between CL and ML (2)

• CL - individual freedom is best achieved with minimal state

• ML - emerged as reaction against free-market capitalism (constrained individuals)

Agreements on Human Nature (2)

• Believe humans are rational creatures and individual beings

• All believe humans are capable of deciding what is in their best interest

• All liberals view humans as being of equal moral worth with foundational equality (Wollstonecraft)

Disagreements on Human Nature (2)

Disagree on nature of rationalism:

• CL’s view of human nature based on egotistical individualism where individuals are self-reliant and self-seeking (selfish form of rationalism)

• ML’s view of human nature based on developmental individualism - idea that individual freedom linked to human flourishing

Disagree on how humans are best able to flourish in society:

• CLs believe in negative freedom (individuals should be left alone to flourish) and people can be left alone in a meritocracy

• MLs believe in positive freedom (individuals need help in order to flourish) and that an enabling state needed

Agreements on the State (2)

• Must be a state in society

• State is a necessary evil

• State is formed on the basis of the social contract theory (Locke)

Disagreements on the State (2)

Disagreements on the extent of the state:

• CLs support minimal state due to beliefs on egotistical individualism and negative freedom

• MLs support enabling state due to beliefs in developmental individualism and positive freedom

Disagreements on the role of the state:

• CLs support free-market, laissez faire economy with a minimal role for the state

• MLs support a Keynesian approach which means a larger role for the state in the economy

• CLs argue welfare is a disincentive for self-reliance and self-improvement

• MLs argue welfare is at the heart of a free society

Agreements on Society (2)

• Society should be organised to promote individualism and freedom

• Society should be organised to enhance the liberal notions of equality

• All recognise the role democracy plays in a free society

Disagreements on Society (2)

The extent of equality in society:

• CLs support formal equality and see society as a meritocracy

• MLs do not believe society is a meritocracy and argue there should be equality of opportunity

Democracy in society: (also links to state)

• CLs wary of extending democracy (Mill supported rep democracy but feared direct democracy; argued uneducated should not vote and educated men should get extra votes)

• MLs embrace full democracy, universal suffrage, and reforms to strengthen it

Understandings of freedom and individualism in society:

• CLs believe in negative freedom whilst MLs believe in positive freedom

• CLs believe in egotistic individualism whilst MLs believe in developmental individualism

Agreements on the Economy (2)

• Support private property

• Recognise the importance of market capitalism

• Believe the economy should enhance individual freedom

Disagreements on the Economy (2)

Disagreement over the state’s role in the economy:

• CLs believe in free-market and laissez faire capitalism whereas MLs supports a Keynesian approach to the economy

• CLs believe in minimal state and MLs believe in an enabling state

Disagreement over the role of welfare in the economy:

• CLs believe welfare is a disincentive for self-reliance and self-improvement

• MLs believe that using the state for welfare is at the heart of a free society

John Locke Key Ideas (3)

Locke (1632 - 1704) CL

• Social contract theory - society, state and gov are based on a theoretical voluntary agreement

• Limited gov - gov should be limited by checks and balances, and a separation of powers. Gov should be based on consent from below

John Locke Human Nature (3)

• If those in power do not protect individual rights, they have broken the Social Contract & people have the right to remove them from power

• Concept did not equate to universal suffrage - only referring to small group of privileged, white and wealthy men

• Wrote in his Second Treatise on Gov “the supreme power cannot take from any man any part of his property without his consent”

John Locke Society (3)

• In the state of nature there were natural societies in which individuals enjoyed natural rights and freedoms

John Locke State (3)

• State = threat to individual freedom, should be limited to ensure freedom and individualism

• State should be based on consent of the governed instead of divine right and acting arbitrarily

• “The supreme power cannot take from any man part of his property without his consent”

Limited Gov:

• “Gov has no other end, but the preservation of property”

• Emphasised the importance of separation of powers within gov to prevent tyranny

John Locke Economy (3)

• Believed private property is a natural right, not granted by gov

• Supported laissez-faire economics - goods are produced for exchange and profit, and wealth is privately owned

What type of Key Thinker was John Locke?

Classical Liberal.

Why type of Key Thinker was Mary Wollstonecraft?

Classical Liberal

Mary Wollstonecraft Key Ideas (1)

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759 - 97) CL

• Reason - women are rational and independent beings capable of reason

• Formal equality - in order to be free, women should enjoy civil liberties and be allowed to have a career

Mary Wollstonecraft Human Nature (3)

Women are rational & independent:

• Any perceived inferiority of women was due to unequal education which stifled their intellectual development and confined to subordinate roles

• Women should be given freedom, rights and education to develop their individual potential - benefit society and economy in process

• “I do not wish them (women) to have power over men; but over themselves” (A Vindication of the Rights of Woman)

Formal Equality:

• Called for equal rights in not just education but also under the law including property rights, and equal opportunities in employment

• Wrote “women ought to have representatives instead of being arbitrary governed without any direct share”

Mary Wollstonecraft Society (3)

• Advocated for a change in way society views and educates women

• Emphasised that with proper education, women could make decisions independently and contribute to society equally

• Wrote “let women share the rights and she will emulate the virtues of man; for she must grow more perfect when emancipated”

Mary Wollstonecraft State (3)

• Wrote “women ought to have representatives, instead of being arbitrability governed without any direct share allowed them in the deliberations of government”

Mary Wollstonecraft Economy (3)

• If women were free to fulfil the principles of liberalism, it would benefit society and the economy as a whole through their individual pursuit of progress

What type of Key Thinker was John Stuart Mill?

Classical Liberal

John Stuart Mill Key Ideas (3)

John Stuart Mill (1806-73) CL

• Harm Principle - individuals should be free to do anything except harm others

• Tolerance - belief that the popularity of a view does not necessarily make it correct

John Stuart Mill Human Nature (3)

• Argued individuals could still be wrong so should be able to freely express themselves and hold diff views as long as not harming others

• Supported tolerance of diverse view points

• “the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others”

John Stuart Mill Society (3)

Representative Democracy:

• Mill was supportive of broader democratic participation yet worried about tyranny of the majority

• Argued for a system of representatives where elected officials were not mere delegates of popular will but independent thinkers

Developmental Individualism:

• Believed for all individuals to be free they needed education to reach their potential and for the property functioning of society & democracy

• Mill suggested plural voting system where the more educated individuals would have more votes

John Stuart Mill State (3)

Functions and Limits of Gov:

• In ‘Principles of Political Economy’ Mill laid out gov roles:

  • To protect citizens from invasion, maintain domestic safety, uphold property rights

  • Promote public goods (infrastructure), address externalities, expand markets

John Stuart Mill Economy (3)

• Supported Laissez-Faire Capitalism

• Embraced progressive taxation and advocated taxing inheritance to prevent unjust inequalities

What type of Key Thinker was John Rawls? (3)

Modern Liberal

John Rawls Key Ideas (3)

• Theory of Justice - opinion that society must be just and guarantee each citizen a life worth living

• The Veil of Ignorance - a hypothetical scenario where individuals agree on the type of society they want from a position where they lack knowledge of their own position in society

John Rawls Human Nature (3)

Veil of Ignorance:

• Justified his support for ML and enabling state through ‘veil of ignorance’ experiment

• Asked individuals to design ideal society without any knowledge of their own position within it

• Under this veil of ignorance, rational individuals would create a society that safeguards least well-off, ensuring a fair distribution of resources and opportunities

• Wrote “the principles of justice are chosen behind a veil of ignorance”

John Rawls Society (3)

• Developed concept and liberal justification for an enabling state that used progressive tax and substantial public spending - for safety net

• Designed to facilitate true positive freedom for all individuals

• Wrote in ‘A Theory of Justice’ “it may be expedient, but it is not just that some should have less in order that others may prosper”

John Rawls State (3)

• Developed concept and liberal justification for an enabling state that used progressive tax and substantial public spending - for safety net

• Designed to facilitate true positive freedom for all individuals

• Wrote in ‘A Theory of Justice’ “it may be expedient, but it is not just that some should have less in order that others may prosper”

John Rawls Economy (3)

• Wrote in ‘A Theory of Justice’ “it may be expedient, but it is not just that some should have less in order that others may prosper”

• Emphasised it was not a ‘surrender to socialism’ instead redistributing wealth within Capitalist framework and creating society where the poor & disadvantaged are supported was rational & consistent with liberal values

What type of Key Thinker was Betty Friedan?

Modern Liberal

Betty Friedan Key Ideas (3)

• Legal equality - women are less capable as men and that oppressive laws and social views must be overturned

• Equal opportunity - women are being held back from their potential because of the limited number of jobs that are ‘acceptable’ for women

Betty Friedan Human Nature (3)

• Wrote in ‘The Feminine Mystique’ “the problem that has no name - which is simply the fact that American women are kept from growing to their full capabilities - is taking a fair greater toll on the physical and mental health of the country than any known disease”

• Wrote “we need to see men and women as equal partners, but it’s hard to think of movies that treat women as full human beings”

Betty Friedan Society (3)

• Challenged oppressive laws and societal norms that limited women

• Key figure in advocating for Equal Rights Amendment in the US (equal rights for American citizens regardless of sex)

• Successful in campaigning for the passage of the Equal Pay Act 1963

• Played pivotal role in establishing the National Organisation for Women (NOW) in 1966 (advocate for legal and societal changes to achieve gender equality)

Betty Friedan State (3)

• Friedan embodied principles of social liberalism and called for state intervention to dismantle these barriers

• Advocated for enactment of laws to prohibit discrimination based on gender

• Wrote in ‘The Feminine Mystique’ “who knows what women can be when they are finally free to be themselves?”

Betty Friedan Economy (3)

• Societal attitudes that primary role of women was wife and mother confined them to domestic sphere rather than being able to pursue their goals and careers

• Called these attitudes the “feminine mystique” - suggested women would find complete fulfilment & identity exclusively through domestic life

What type of NON key thinker was John Maynard Keynes?

Social Liberal

John Maynard Keynes Economy (3)

• advocated for Keynesian economics

• argued during times of economic crisis, private sector demand could be insufficient to maintain full employment and it was necessary for gov to step in and stimulate demand through public spending

Keynesian Economics:

• Injecting money into economy (through gov projects & programs) would increase demand, spurring production and employment

• would alleviate short-term economic distress and stabilise the economy in the long run

John Maynard Keynes NON key Ideas (3)

• The Multiplier Effect - introduced idea that public spending can multiply throughout the economy, generating additional income and boosting overall demand

• Animal Spirits - Keynes used this term to capture the unpredicatable influence of human confident, optimism, and emotion on investment and economic activity

Adam Smith NON key ideas

• Natural Rights - belief that individuals possess inherent rights such as life, liberty and property which the gov’s primary role is to protect

• Invisible Hand - argued individuals freely pursue their self-interest, they contribute to social and economic benefits, as if guided by an “invisible hand”

Adam Smith Economy (3)

Laissez-Faire Capitalism:

• Advocated for laissez-faire capitalism

• Believed individual freedom in economic pursuits = most efficient allocation of resources & greatest increase in national wealth

• Smith called this the “invisible hand” of the market and argued as a result gov intervention should be limited, as excessive intervention distorts the market mechanisms, leads to inefficiencies, and stifles growth