Psych Exam 4

secularization theory

secularization theory

holds that religion is on the decline and that people everywhere are discovering new secular and rational ways to make sense of their lives.

preconventional moral reasoning

Moral reasoning in which rightness is determined by the physical or hedonistic consequences of a behavior or action

conventional moral reasoning

Moral reasoning in which rightness is determined by whether an individual behavior or action fits with the group’s rules, laws or conventions.

postconventional moral reasoning

Moral reasoning in which rightness is determined by whether a behavior or action meets abstract ethical principles of justice and individual rights

ethic of autonomy

A system of values that view morality in terms of individual freedoms and rights violations, with an emphasis on personal choice, the right to engage in free contracts, and individual liberty

ethic of community

A system of values emphasizing that people have duties and obligations pertaining to their roles in a community or social hierarchy

ethic of divinity

A system of values emphasizing sanctity and the perceived natural order of things

orthodox

A term describing religious believers committed to the idea of a transcendent authority that operates independently of people and is more knowledgeable and powerful than all of human experience

progressive

A term describing religious believers who emphasize the importance of human agency in understanding and formulating a moral code

avoiding harm

A moral intuition to avoid behaviors that cause harm to others

protecting fairness

A moral intuition to pay attention to whether resources or rights were distributed fairly

loyalty to ingroups

A moral intuition to put the interests of ingroups ahead of outgroups

respecting authority

A moral intuition to the admire superiors and behave according to the wishes of authority figures

achieving purity

A moral intuition that people should be disgusted by contamination or behaviors governed by sensual passions

calling

In certain religious beliefs, the God-given purpose an individual is meant to fulfill during his or her lifetime

french paradox

The fact that despite eating a cuisine that’s rich in fat, French people have relatively low rates of obesity and heart disease, and a relatively long lifespan

epidemiological paradox

The fact that Latinos have surprisingly good health despite their lower-than-average socioeconomic status

hikikomori

A culture-bound syndrome, most common in adolescent Japanese boys, characterized by self-imposed confinement and withdrawal from all social interaction for an extended period of time

dhat syndrome

A culture-bound syndrome, most common in South Asia, in which men develop morbid anxiety about concerns that they are leaking and losing semen

culture-bound syndrome

A group of psychological symptoms that appear to be greatly influenced by cultural factors, and therefore occur far less often in some cultures than others, or manifest in highly diverse ways across cultures

anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by a refusal to maintain a normal body weight, an intense fear of gaining weight, and a denial of the seriousness of abnormally low body weight

bulimia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by recurring episodes of binge eating, along with inappropriate behaviors to prevent weight gain, such as induced vomiting, at least twice a week for 3 months

koro

A culture-bound syndrome, most common in South and East Asia, in which men develop morbid anxiety and fear that their penis is retracting into their body

ataques de nervios

A culture-bound syndrome, most common in Puerto Ricans, in which emotionally charged incidents cause convulsions, loss of consciousness, heart palpitations, numbness, and a sense of heat rising to the head

amok

A culture-bound syndrome, most common in Southeast Asia, in which a person has a sudden outburst of unrestrained behavior or violence, followed by exhaustion and amnesia

frigophobia

A culture-bound syndrome, most common in China, characterized by a morbid fear of getting cold, leading people to dress themselves in heavy coats and scarves even in summer

susto

A culture-bound syndrome, most common in which a person feels that a frightened experience has dislodged the soul from his or her body, leading to a wide range of physical and psychological symptoms

voodoo death

A culture-bound syndrome, most common in Africa, in which a person is convinced he or she has been cursed or has broken a taboo, resulting in a severe level of fear that sometimes leads to death

latah

A culture-bound syndrome, most common in Southeast Asia, in which a person falls into a transient dissociated state following a startling event; characterized by various kinds of unusual behavior

malgri

A culture-bound syndrome of territorial anxiety, most common in Australian Aborigines; a person grows physically sick and drowsy when entering the sea or a new territory without engaging in the appropriate ceremonial procedures

agonias

A culture-bound syndrome and anxiety disorder, most common in Portugal and the Azores, that can include a wide array of symptoms, such as a burning sensation, loss of breath, hysterical blindness, sleep problems, and eating disorders

kufungisisa

A culture-bound syndrome, and an anxiety and physical disorder, most common in Zimbabwe, characterized by panic attacks and irritability caused by mental exhaustion; translated as thinking to much

major depressive disorder (MMD)

A mental disorder characterized primarily by an extended period of low mood or an inability to feel pleasure

somatization

The experiencing of the symptoms of an illness primarily physically rather than psychologically

psychologization

The experiencing of symptoms of an illness primarily psychologically rather than psychically

social anxiety disorder

A fear that one is in danger of acting in an inept and unacceptable manner, and that such behavior will bring disastrous social consequences

taijin kyoufushou (TKS)

A disorder similar to social anxiety disorder involving fear triggered by social situations; it is characterized by physical symptoms, including extensive blushing, body odor, sweating, and a penetrating gaze

schizophrenia

A debilitating mental disorder, characterized by two or more of these symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized or chaotic behavior

cultural competence

The ability of psychotherapists to recognize their own cultural influences, have knowledge about the cultural background of their clients, and apply skills to intervene in therapy sessions in relevant and culturally sensitive ways.

social loafing

The tendency for members of a group to exert less effort on a collective task when it is unclear how much a person is contributing to the outcome

social striving

The tendency for people who care about their relationships within a group to exert more effort when they are being evaluated as a group rather than as individuals

charismatic/value-based leader

An organizational leader who uses the ability to inspire and motivate employees on the basis of firmly held core beliefs while maintaining high performance standards

team-oriented leader

An organizational leader who emphasizes effective team-building and implanting a common goal among employees

humane-oriented leader

An organizational leader who is supportive, considerate, compassionate, and generous

autonomous leader

An organizational leader who demonstrates an independent and individualistic style of leadership

participative leader

An organizational leader who involves others in making and implementing decisions

self-protective leader

An organizational leader who is focused on ensuring his or her own safety and security

paternalistic leader

An organizational leader who strives to create a family atmosphere in the workplace, serving somewhat of a father role; while having clear authority over employees, also develops close relationships with them, gets involved in their personal lives, and expects loyalty

rational persuasion

A leadership trait characterized by influencing others through logical arguments in order to reach practical solutions

guanxi

A Chinese word loosely translated as “connections” or “relationships”; as a form of social influence, a concept that reflects how people deepen relationships with others and have a sense of mutual obligation so favors can be exchanged in the future

wasta

An Arabic word meaning “connections” or “pull”; a means pf gaining trust by relying on a trusted third party tp help get things done

jeitinho

A Brazilian Portuguese word meaning “little way out,” a concept that reflects inflexible rules in order to get things done

nemawashi

A Japanese process in which ideas are informally discussed among members of an organization, and a consensus is reached, prior to any formal proposal being made

global leader

An organizational leader who is flexible, nonjudgmental, cosmopolitan, and has much knowledge about local cultures; an effective leader for guiding a diverse force

distributive justice

The socially just and equitable allocation of goods and services

principle of need

Directing resources toward those whose circumstances would benefit the most

principle of equality

Sharing resources equally among the members of a group

principle of equity

Distributing resources based on an individual contributions

meritocracy

A social system that rewards individuals based on their own contributions, according to the principle of equity

seniority system

An organizational system that rewards individuals based on older or a longer time spent with the company

just world belief

A worldview that life is fair, and that people tend to get what they deserve

dictator game

An economic game designed to explore people’s motivations for fairness by testing the assumption that they will act solely out of self-interest; one person gets to decide how much of a sum of money to give to another person

public goods game

An economic game designed to explore people’s motivations for fairness by testing their cooperation with anonymous strangers; a group of people have the option to contribute some of their money to a common pool, the experimenter multiplies the amount and then redistributes it to all members of the group

altruistic punishment

Incurring a cost to oneself in order to punish someone who isn’t cooperating with the group

antisocial punishment

Incurring a cost to oneself in order to punish someone who is cooperating with the group; a form of revenge

power distance

The strength of a social hierarchy and the extent to which people of lower status accept the unequal distribution of power in their society

Lessons from Australopithecus afarensis

• the shape of your feet can be seen as a cultural product

• wearing shoes changes foot shape

• Extreme Example: Chinese tradition of foot binding

• shows change how people run

• not wearing shoes and running made their feet stronger

• cultural can change the physical body

• Machiguenga man doesn’t wear shoes so his big toe is farther out

skin color

• good example of genetic variability

• why are there variations?

  • most compelling explanation lies in the bodies ability to synthesize vitamin D from sunlight

  • ultraviolet light is used to make vitamin D

  • too much UVR can lead to anemia, birth defects, or skin cancer

  • lower melatin lighter skin color; adapts due to environment

Other examples of physical health (Climate, altitude, local pathogens)

• climate is a strong selection pressure, and people who are better adapted to the local climate will produce more surviving offspring

  • for example, evidence suggests that people in different regions of the world have different genetic variations associated with heat stress

• altitude is another selection process

  • people live in the high Tibetan plateau, at altitudes that approximate the highest points of the contiguous United States, have access to only about 60% of the oxygen that exists at sea level. Many people would develop serious altitude sickness. However, ethnic Tibetans have evolved genetic variants that enable them to thrive despite the low levels of oxygen

• the next is local pathogens

  • people more resistant to pathogens are more likely to survive

  • for example Spaniards genetic resistance to smallpox vs the Incas

  • Another example is HIV, takes 50 years for resistance to evolve

lactase persistence vs intolerance/nonpersistence

• instances of cultural factors shaping the genome

  • for example, most adults in the world who drink milk develop the symptoms of lactose intolerance because they have insufficient lactase enzyme in their intestines to digest the lactose sugar. This is known as lactase nonpersistence

    • develops in areas precisely where cows have been domesticated for the longest periods, as evidenced by the highest genetic diversity in the cattle population

    • genetic change caused within the last 10,000 years

    • A parallel genetic mutation evolved among African cultural groups that raised cattle, distinct mutation from Europe

Starch and amylase protein in saliva

• long-term, persistent dietary changes have been accompanied by genetic evolution, which maximizes the effectiveness of the nutrition people derive from the food they eat

  • For example, people vary in the amount of starch consumption; in general, people in agricultural societies consume more starch than those in most foraging societies. And in societies where starch is a dietary staple, people are more likely to have a genetic mutation that increases the amount of amylase protein in their saliva, which helps in the digestion of starch

Yams, malaria, and sickle-cell anemia

• culture can influence the genome are sometimes indirect

  • for example, in West Africa, populations of Kwa-speaking farmers started to grow yam crops, which required them to clear the forests. An accidental side effect of this cultural practice was that it increased the amount of standing water after a rain, creating a better habitat for malaria-carrying mosquitoes. malaria then spread in these regions and led to the evolution of a genetic mutation for hemoglobin that is associated with sickle-cell anemia; this has the benefit of increased resistance to getting Malaria. Neighboring populations didn’t have this genetic mutation

Can genes for ‘race’ explain psychological variability across cultures?

While on the surface this reasoning may feel as if it may be plausible, the closer you look more problems arise

• only 4% of its distinguishes people from different continental races. Majority of genetic variation occurs between people of the same ethnic heritage

1. Evidence from immigrants:

• however, many cross-cultural studies have identifies findings for which immigrants and their children show a different pattern of responses compared to people who live in their heritage culture.

  • these studies are important because these immigrants are genetically similar to people from their heritage culture, yet they participate in cultural practices from their host culture; therefore, they’re ideal for detecting whether cultural experiences play a role in variations in psychological process

  • these kinds of studies demonstrate the role of cultural experiences accounting for the observed differences.

Underwater acuity among the Moken

• physical variations that exist independently of genetics

  • for example, the Moken, a tribe of sea nomads in Southeast Asia, spend 7-8 months a year living on small boats in the archipelagos off of Burma, Thailand, and Malaysia. Moken children have more than twice the underwater visual acuity of European children.

    • possibly because of controlled visual accommodation followed by maximal pupil construction - a process similar to what enables seals to see clearly underwater

    • very likely that it is not a genetic adaptation. research shows this specialized ability is acquired through practice, and that European children can be trained to develop the same kind of underwater visual acuity as the Moken.

    • The difference is that the Moken have no explicit training; they gain the ability by regularly participating in the cultural practice of diving for food

Myopia

• one cause could be kids spending to much time looking at things up close (reading and playing games)

• there is a positive correlation between the number of years of schooling and myopia rates

• another cause is that people are spending less time outdoors, and exposure to sunlight appears to be protective against nightedness

  • A recent study with Chinese children found that an additional 40 minutes per day in outdoor activity was associated with a substantial drop in myopia rates

Obesity & diet

• comparisons of cultures using the standard definition of obesity as a body mass index (BMI) score of at least 30 yield tremendous variability in obesity rates around the world ranging from 1.5% of Chinese women in to 55% of Samoan women

• obesity rates have raised substantially within the U.S. and the U.K.

• Some ideas on why could be: high-calorie foods, larger portion sizes, a sedentary lifestyle marked by spending excessive amounts of time online or watching TV, and living in suburban locations, with more driving and less exercise

1. French paradox

• possibilities of this phenomena:

  • French drink more wine, which serves to inhibit platelet aggregation and thereby reduces the risk of coronary heart disease

  • portion size

  • Rozin found that that yogurt containers are 80% bigger than they are in France, and a variety of other foods sold in individual servings, such as chocolate bars, soft drinks, and lasagnas. Medium fries at McDonalds contain 70% more

  • french view eating as a more leisurely and enjoyable activity than Americans do

    • about 80% of the french chose a hotel with good food versus the 40% of Americans

  • dieting

Height

• eating habits can have striking effects on height

• Dutch are tall

Variations across time and across cultures in timing, duration

• there are differences in sleep

• co-sleeping vs individual sleeping

• sleep times

  • the notion of 8 hours isn’t universal

  • medieval Europe thought you had two faces during sleep (wake up for an hour in the middle of the night)

    • still seen in some cultures

• total amount varies across cultures

  • Japanese and Korean sleep an hour less than french adults

  • Adolescents in Asia sleep 40-60 minutes less than those in North America, and 60-120 minutes less than those in Europe

  • Japanese infants sleep 1.5 hours less than infants in America

• sleep is hard to study bc its done privately, in ones own home

• Due to Heine’s study Japanese sleep about an hour less than the two Canadian groups, who don’t differ at all

Classic English study

• examined the mortality of civil servants in England across a 10-year period.

• members of the executive class were 60% more likely to die over that 10-year period, the clerical staff were 120% more likely to die, and the unskilled laborers were 170% more likely to die

• clear association between employment category and mortality

• found in other countries such as Denmark, Norway, Finland, France, Japan, and New Zeland

Study in Burkina Faso

• effects on social status and health

• the Fulani, Mossi, and Rimaibe. Due to the malaria endemic in this region, there were major death rates. The Mossi and Rimaibe have lived there for thousands of years and have evolved to have strong genetic resistance to Malaria. While the Fulani are less gentically prepared for Malaria they are also less likely to get the disease

  • this could be because they are the dominant ethnic group

Explanations of Classic English Study and Study in Burkina Faso:

i. Income

• IF you don’t have enough money for health care, your health will be worse off

• in English study the differences in mortality was because of difference medical care (for different social classes) (NOT PROVEN)

ii. Differences in riskiness of occupations

• dangerous jobs and unhealthy habits

• first explanation isnt seen in the british study

• second one isnt proven

iii. Differences in health-relevant habitsiv. Psychological Variables

1. Pessimism and hostility

• low SES neighborhoods school achievement is poorer than Higher SES

• this predisposition could lead the lower SES to be more hostile and pessimistic

2. Cognitive overloada. Sugar cane farmers in India

• can be caused due to low income

• poverty leads people to become more risk adverse

• India sugar cane farms crops are seasonal so htey struggle to make money

• poor people are less likely to listen to medical advice

3. Stress and lack of control \n 1. Increased likelihood of health-compromising behaviors

• more likely to indulge in smoking as stress relief

2. Weakens the immune system. Perceive (experience) more threats. Experience less control

• stress is higher in lower income homes, leads to higher blood pressure

• lack of control in life = more stress

1. Classic Langer & Rodin studyd. Also among other primates

• nursing home residents were split into two groups. One group received an intervention that enabled them to have control over a number of minor life events. The other group did not receive this.

  • Group one ended up needing less medications, were in better health, and lived loneger

Income inequality (subjective feelings of deprivation)

• feeling poor matters as much as being poor

a. OECD data

• lower income can make a dramatic difference in health

• poorer Americans are doing worse than wealthy Americans

b. Keralans vs poor Americans

• Kerala indians have far lower absolute incomes than poor African Americans in the U.S.. However, the Kerela outlive the African AMericans b a substantial degree.

  • This may be because they don’t feel as poor compared to their friends

c. Correlation between life expectancy and GINI coefficient

• less income inequality = longer life expectancy

• for example, Japan has the longest average life expectancy in the world, and also the most egalitarian income distributions of any industrialized nation

• strongly negative correlation between the Gini coefficient and the average of life expectancy

Worse African American outcomes- hypertension example

• minorities tend to be worse off

• based of the leading causes for death in the US, African AMericans have higher death rates for 12 of them (in comparison to Euro Americans)

• infant morality rates are doubled those of euro americans

• hypertension rates are slightly higher for African Americans

• genetic markers dont vary between the two races

• hypertension is linked to stress

• discrimination and racism could be a cause for higher hypertension

Latino ‘epidemiological paradox’

explanations:

• “healthy migrant hypothesis” = only healthy Latinos were able to survive = not proven

• “salmon bias” = Latino immigrants return “home” when sick or old = not proven

• healthy habits

• community values (love of family) = positive emotions

Variations in cultures’ theories on the origins of disease

• medical practices derived from local customs, particularly religious beliefs, as well as trial and error

• none of the 186 societies viewed organ deteriation as an important cause

• the Ingalik, Javanese, and Siamese saw stress as clear health concern

• Japanese viewed infection as a major cause for illness

Metaphors for the healthy body

i. Chinese

• a healthy body is one in which the opposite forces if yin and yang are balanced

• medical treatment: acupuncture, herbal remedies, exercise, diet, and life style

ii. French

• terrain = “constitution” and “resistance”

• view of balance within the body

• hospital stays are quite long here

• dont believe germs and dirt to be a threat

• they bathe less

iii. US

• body is like a machine

• treat like a machine, body needs repairs

• higher dosages of medication

• look for external causes more

Study of lay vs professional medical beliefs across cultures

• the correlations between laypeople was hire when the doctors were from the same country.

• Study shows that doctor’s views of health are shaped by their culture

social anxiety western vs east asia

• east Asian societies put premium on saving face and maintain social harmony

• shy children in asia are better liked than in america

• people view it as less of a concern in east Asia

Schizophrenia statistics

• 1% for general population

• 2% if your cousin has it

• sibling with it 9%

• identical twin 48%

Different schizophrenias

• paranoid schizophrenia: (characterized by delusional visions) 75% if schiz in UK are diagnosed with this branch, compared to 15% in India

• catatonic schizophrenia: (characterized by a near absence of moto activity and an insensitivity to external stimuli) rarely seen in the west (1 to 3% of cases)

suicide variations by age, gender, culture, and motivation

• Lithuania 81.9 men and 13.4 women per 100,000 people

• Egypt 0.1 men and 0.0 women per 100,00 people

Suicide Examples of Micronesia, (Canadian) First Nation, Native Americans

• Micronesia: didn’t appear to have any psychological disorder. The suicides appeared to be over trivial arguments between family and peers

  • Always a appeared to be single men, living at home

• canada: young people dont feel connected to the cultural narrative

  • lack of cultural identity

• Native Americans: spiritual, higher depression

Suicide Japan

• sign of accepting responsibility and perserve one’s honor

Mental Illness history in west

• Believed it to be possession or a moral lapse

Implicit vs explicit; emotion-focused vs problem-focused

• Europeans are more likely to seek help

• implicit support: emotional support found in close relations; seen more in Asian culture

• explicit: more seen in western

  • emotion-focused: encouraging and comforting words (America)

    • Americans focus on positive emotions Germans focus on both good and bad emotions

  • problem-solving: providing specific advice (east Asia)

Western ‘talk therapy’ vs drugs vs family vs spirituality

• requires shared culture between therapist and client to be effective

• spiritual concept: Yoruba thought, a person is viewed as the union of the ara (body), emi (mind/soul), and ori (inner head), each brought by a specific God.

• Family is needed for healing

cognitive behavioral therapy

in which the therapist helps the client restructure unhealthy thoughts by identifying dysfunctional biases, then alleviating their negative reactions to certain situations through controlled exposure

Japanese ‘quiet therapies’- Morita and Naikan

• reflects the desire for secondary control

• Morita therapy: clients to come to accept the circumstances of their life just as they are

  • mainly for those with anxiety and depression

  • involves isolation

• Naikan therapy: helps people gain insight about their past. Appreciate the kindness of others (guilt-tripping?)

  • used to treat those wstruggling with addiction, depression, a d sociopathic behavior

Cultural matching vs cultural competence vs cultural consultation service

• Cultural Matching: clients are matched with therapists from the same culture

  • clients can express their views in their own language, will feel that the therapist understands them better and will be more likely to continue with their treatment

• cultural competence: therapist working to understand their client and their different culture

  • therapist must first recognize their own culture bias

  • learn more about their clients culture and possible disorders within it

• cultural consultation service: a group of psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, psychiatric nurses, medica anthropologist, and trainees from various cultures meet regularly to discuss how they can improve and what they have learned

The Charlie Hebdo cartoons, and the divisions they reveal

• made offensive comics about Muslim culture and it led to a lot of people being hurt

• westerns were confused and angry because they didn’t see it as wrong

• Muslims were upset because they saw it as offensive and disrespectful