all euthanasia

arguments for sanctity of life

- upholds the intrinsic value of life in a culture where we dehumanise others in interactions online + in society

- ensures basic rights eg right to life are respected esp when ppl cannot speak for themselves

- slippery slope argument - evidence from the legalisation of abortion

arguments against sanctity of life

- religious concept + is no longer relevant in a secular society (50% of uk don't believe in god and less than 10% attend church regularly)

- contradicts with autonomy of voluntary euthanasia

- too absolutist - leads to ppl dying in extreme pain + does not treat human life w dignity + respect

- medical + tech advances tell us where treatment may improve/where it is pointless - not all ppl have to be treated

arguments for the application of NL

- sanctity of life - life is valuable regardless of quality, avoids slippery slope argument

- prevent individuals from playing god + making decisions ab the life of others

- double effect provides flexibility - allows pain relief

arguments against the application of NL

- overly religious + dependent on christian roots - euthanasia was common in the ancient world before the dominance of christanity, should be allowed today in a secular society

- too legalistic + absolutist, does not consider diff situations

- requires individuals continue to live even in extreme pain. util would disagree

- does not place sufficient weight on human autonomy, person concerned should be central to decision

- doctrine of double effect allows euthanasia - difficult to distinguish between euthanasia + secondary effect of death

arguments for the application of SE

- flexible - offers general principles not fixed rules + allows us to respond to complex/varying situations

- agape is a good moral principle + puts people first

- modern tech + medical knowledge means we know better who is worth treating

- respects the autonomy of individuals + recognises the patient is the most important person in the situation

arguments against the application of SE

- vague - the most loving thing is subjective + unclear in practis

- teleological argument - requires a prediction of the future (this is not possible in complex medical cases)

- lacks absolute boundaries (slippery slope argument)

arguments for autonomy

- se supports autonomy (personalism) we should allow ppl to make decisions in their own interest

- arguments against autonomy are based on the religious idea of sanctity of life - irrelevant in a secular context (50% of uk)

arguments against autonomy

- nl rejects autonomy as the most important consideration in euthanasia - life is god given (PoL precept)

- not supported by the bible - commandments against taking life as god should only give/take life

- difficult to apply in a traumatic/stressful time - someone in extreme physical/mental pain to have the clarity of thought to make decisions to end life esp vulnerable ppl

acts + omissions are different

- for nl, actions matter - preserving innocent life rules out acts that lead to death. double effect allows some actions may lead to death (omission)

- issue of moral agency - if we allowed active euthanasia, we would need doctors + professionals to carry this out (contradicts w the hippocratic oath + causes anxiety for the physicians involved)

acts + omissions are the same

- se challenges the distinction between the two - agape requires the compassionate response of helping someone to end life + whether this is an act/omission is irrelevant

- teleological approach that focuses on reducing pain + suffering would favour euthanasia through the method that is most helpful in alleviating suffering

- withdrawal of treatment is a lengthy process + leads to medical resources being allocated to ppl who won't recover. allowing active euthanasia may speed up this process + free resources to focus on those who may recover

- double effect is complex + incoherent - if the negative consequence is foreseen how can be truly unintended?

euthanasia

translates to 'a good death'
assisted suicide
when a person who wishes to die is helped to die by another person. they may/may not have a serious/terminal illness

suicide

a person makes a voluntary choice and takes their own life

active euthanasia

a treatment is given that directly causes the death of the individual

non-voluntary euthanasia

where a severely terminally ill person's life is ended without their consent, possible they are unable to give consent
consent may be given by someone representing their interests. usually with someone who is in a persistent vegetative state

passive euthanasia

a treatment is witheld and this indirectly causes the death of the individual

voluntary euthanasia

when a person's life has ended at their request or with their consent, and it's use in the case of incurable or terminal illness

tony bland

suffered brain damage in the hillsborough disaster and was in a coma for 4 years before doctors withdrew his life support

an example of involuntary euthanasia + passive euthanasia (withdrawal of treatment keeping a patient alive, indirect death)

autonomy

'self ruling' - the belief that we are free and able to make our own decisions

against

'so god created humankind in his own image, in the image of god he created them' - genesis 1:27

against

'you shall not murder' - exodus 20:13

against

the lord gave, and the lord has taken away; blessed be the name of the lord' - job 1:21

against

then the Lord God formed the man of dust from the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living creature.

against

Not only that, but we rejoice in our sufferings, knowing that suffering produces endurance,

what is euthanasia?

assisted suicide - someone who wishes to die is helped

' a good death'

what is active euthanasia?

a treatment is given that directly causes the death of the individual

what is passive euthanasia?

a treatment is withheld that indirectly causes death, eg withdrawing life support

what is voluntary euthanasia?

a person's life is ended at their own request

- usually done by another individual and is because of a terminal illness

what is non-voluntary euthanasia?

a severely ill person's life is ended without consent - they may be unable to give consent

key knowledge

- euthanasia is illegal in the uk

- legal in holland + switzerland

- suicide has been decriminalised but it is an offence to assist someone in committing suicide

- legally wrong to administer active euthanasia

what are extraordinary means?

expensive Treatments that do not offer much hope - machienes, drugs ect

what are ordinary means?

treatments that offer reasonable hope without excessive expense, pain, etc. eg water, food

what is the sanctity of life principle?

the religious idea that life is intrinsically sacred/valuable

sanctity of life

- religious

- intrinsic value of life

- supported by natural law

- absolute

the sanctity of life

life is special + valuable as it is god-given

- we are all created imago dei

each life has intrinsic value

the quality of life

- the valuableness of life depends on whether it is worth living

- some base quality of life on life's good (happiness, freedom from pain)

- others base this on the possession of autonomy

what is the quality of life principle?

life's value depends on certain attributes/goods eg happiness/autonomy

the quality of life

- secular view

- instrumental view

- supported by situation ethics + util

- conditional

teachings to support the sanctity of life

'so god created mankind in his image, in the image of god he created them'

we have a divine spark

'you shall not murder'

10 commandments

'the lord gave, and the lord has taken away'

only god can take away life

the five quality of life commandments

- recognise the worth of human life varies

- take responsibilities for the consequences of your decisions (to save/end life)

- respect a person's desire to live/die

- bring children into the world only if they are wanted

- do not discriminate on the basis of species

define autonomy

self-ruling
- we are free + able to make our own decisions

what is the principle of autonomy?

humans should be free to make decisions about their own future

links to mill's harm principle

the right to make our own decisions about our death

johnathon glover

- there should be several checks on whether someone should be assisted to die

- includes external judgement to quality of life + mental state

- if the decision is made in a diminished mental state it is not truly autonomous

johnathon glover: quote

'i must be convinced that your decision is a serious one; it must be properly thought out, not merely the result of a temporary emotional state. i must also think your decision is a reasonable one'

- glover, causing death and saving lives

what is the hippocratic oath?

an oath taken by practising docters

- greek physician hippocrates - it would be wrong for a doctor to do something that would cause the death of someone

- it is pointless to treat those who are overcome by a disease + medicine is powerless

hippocratic oath: quote

' i will neither give a deadly drug to anybody if asked for it, nor i will make a suggestion to that effect'

acts vs an omission

an act - causes death, is morally + legally wrong

an omission - stopping a treatment + causing death is not wrong

james rachels - challenging acts + omissions

the distinction between actively + passively killing is unhelpful

james rachels - example

- smith will inherit a fortune if his nephew dies - he drowns his nephew in the bath + makes it seem like an accident - act

- jones will inherit a fortune if his nephew dies. he sees his nephew slip and hit his head and drown. he does nothing - omission

smith is more guilty than jones legally but not morally

rachels - both cases are equally bad + passive euthanasia by omission may be worse as it takes longer

johnathon glover: acts + omissions

- the distinction between acts + omissions is not so clear cut

- they may involve ordinary (food+water) + extraordinary means (highly medical technology)]

there are five options when it comes to euthanasia

- take all possible steps to preserve life

- take all ordinary steps to preserve life - no extraordinary means

- not killing but taking all steps to preserve life

- an act with no intention of killing but death as a possible foreseen consequence

- deliberate death

peter singer: acts + omissions

tony bland case: was the removal of the feeding tube an act or an omission?

strengths of the sanctity of life

- if we do not uphold the supreme value of life this may lead to poorer treatment of patients + patients feeling like a burden on resources

- idea that life is special in all forms is mostly agreed on - modern rights have origins in this idea

- NL upholds the intrinsic value of life (PoL precept)

-'the lord gave and the lord has taken away' - when making decisions about life ending treatments we may presumt to know more than god

weaknessess of the sanctity of life

- assumes a religious worldview - many people in the 21st century do not share this view

- sanctity of life states all life must be saved at all costs whether there is a good chance of treatment working or not - technology + medical knowledge has advanced greatly + we are now able to know which lives can(not) be saved - we no longer need to value all life at all costs

- SE rejects overly legalistic interpretations of the SoL - more important to work on a case by case basis attempting to do the most loving thing for people involved

- suffering of patients may be unnecessarily increased if we preserve life at all costs

- peter singer - sanctity of life is old fashioned + should be replaced. people should have freedom to make decisions about their lives for themselves

what is the slippery slope argument?

changes to law on euthanasia may be the beginning of a slippery slope where respect for life is reduced + pressure on the vulnerable (old, disabled) increases + makes them people as if they are a burden to society

evidence for the slippery slope argument

legalisation of abortion - people thought would result in few thousand cases per year
180,000 abortions in the UK each year

singer's response to the slippery slope argument

- review conducted in the netherlands
- 48,000 euthanised in the time period
- only 2 were against their will

the divine law

natural law is dependent on the divine law revealed by god

10 commandments: do not kill/murder

job 1:21 'god gives and god takes away'

preservation of life precept

life is intrinsically valuable + should not be shortened

ordered society precept

- practise of euthanasia would undermine the stability of society - a society where life wasn't values cannot be ordered

worship god precept

how can we be worshipping god if we take away life?
'god gives and god takes away'

apparent + real goods

to end life by euthanasia instead of preserving life is an apparent good not a real good

doctrine of double effect

- may allow pain relief if the intention is to relieve pain + the shortening of life is an unintended secondary effect
- distinction between ordinary + extraordinary means

NL is useful for euthanasia

- upholds the intrinsic value of life

- principle of double effect gives flexibility to relieve pain when there is no prospect to save life

- prevents humans from abusing power over others + putting themselves in the place of god

NL is not useful for euthanasia

- religious foundations make it seem outdated

- legalistic + shows no compassion to the pain + suffering experienced by many terminally ill people

- focus on sanctity of life means the concepts of quality of life + individual autonomy aren't seen as important

active euthanasia

the deliberate ending of someone's life

consent

permission

euthanasia

intentional killing

hippocratic oath

a set of promises about patient care that new doctors make when they start practicing medicine to preserve life

imago dei

sanctity of life - we are all made in the image of god and therefore should not end life

non voluntary euthanasia

when the person who is killed made no request and gave no consent

palliative care

hospice care; taking care of the whole person—body, mind, spirit, heart and soul—with the goal of giving patients with life-threatening illnesses the best quality of life they can have through the aggressive management of symptoms

passive euthanasia

allowing a person to die by withholding treatment

persistent vegetative state

situation in which a person's cortical functioning ceases while brainstem activity continues

personhood

the quality or condition of being an individual person

quality of life

peter singer - weighing up the quality of life with factors such as happiness, pleasure, mobility ect to determine whether life should be ended

sanctity of life

life is sacred as it is god-given + we are created in the image of god therefore we should not end life

terminal illness

a disease or condition that will eventually cause death

voluntary euthanasia

euthanasia performed on a person with permission

singer

a shift from sanctity of life to quality of life shows people want more control over their lives + decisions

kuhse

slippery slope argument is scaremongering from people who want a complete ban

there is no evidence a slippery slope is happening in the netherlands

dewar

main arguments for voluntary euthanasia centre around the belief that we have a right to die with dignity and free from pain

mill

people should have full autonomy over actions that do not affect others (harm principle)

pope john paul II

euthanasia challenges the sanctity of life and devalues human dignity and respect

corinthians

killing a human is the same as killing god

'don't you know that you yourselves are god's temple and god's spirit dwells in your midst?"

rachels

there is no difference between passive + active euthanasia as the result is the same

catholics agree - method does not change the fact that it is murder

doctrine of double effect - used in the case of using pain relief drugs that bring about death

pence

killing someone who wants to die is not murder

locke

value of life is about a persons ability to make decisions + choices, not a self/soul

lactanius (christian thinker)

god created humans as sacred beings, we have dignity and respect

dworkin

sanctity of life means two things
- life should be preserved and be of good quality
- voluntary euthanasia allows people to die while maintaining a eudaemonic quality to being alive
- eudaimonia involves flourishing and contentment

glover

rejects the 3 side effects
recognises that any system would have to be carefully monitred

VES (voluntary euthanasia society)

safer and more honest to make euthanasia legal

people wouldnt have to go to such extreme lengths

fletcher

- served as a president of the euthanasia society of america'

said we can take death into our own hands to euthanise out of compassion

fletcher

served as a president of the euthanasia society of america

case study

a terminally ill man refusing treatment + speeding up the process of death/shorten his life is not wrong if this produces the most loving outcome

personalism working principle

person centered
people and the welfare of people rather than laws

rejection of legalism

- rejects legalism in favour of agape
- 'do not kill' are sophia (general rules of wisdom) but can be broken when love demands it

relativism

'love's decisions are made situationally, not prescriptively'

fletcher argues that a patients medical condition should be the starting point for any decisions made in medical ethics

SE is useful for euthanasia

- flexible to individual situations + recognises that no two situations on euthanasia are the same

- agape love if correctly understood is about ensuring the best possible outcome for everyone involved

SE is not useful for euthanasia

- 'do the most loving thing is vague' - most loving thing may be subjective

- requires a prediction of the future - the most loving outcome is not certain