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Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707-1788)
One of the first to publicly challenge the idea that life forms are unchanging
Noted the similarities between humans and apes, speculating a common ancestor and suggesting species do change over time
Georges Cuvier (1769-1832)
Found each layer of rock is characterized by a unique group of fossil species
the deeper the rock (older), the more dissimilar they are from modern life
from layer to layer, found evidence that new species appeared and others disappeared over time
showed species could be extinct
Paleontology
study of ancient life through the examination of fossils
Catastrophism
the idea that many destructive natural events in the past (floods, volcanic eruptions) were violent enough to have killed numerous species at a time
catastrophes corresponded to the boundaries between layers of rock studied by Georges Cuvier
Charles Lyell (1769-1832)
Uniformitarianism
geological processes operated at the same rates in the past as they do today. Suggested geological changes are slow and continuous rather than catastrophic, and can happen over a long period of time and could result in substantial changes (e.g., forces that build and erode mountains)
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)
the first scientist to recognize that the environment plays a key role in the evolution of species. Believed in evolutionary change and improvement of individual species. He further postulated the theory of inheritance of acquired traits.
Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802)
English physician, turned down being the doctor to the king, proposed that all life may have a single source. Grandfather of Charles Darwin
Darwin’s Voyage of Discovery
December 1831 (for about 5 years)
Voyage to South America on the HMS Beagle
Observed, recorded, collected specimens
Patagonia
Observed by Darwin
Collected 2 species’ fossils that were identified later as large versions of armadillo and sloth that still inhabited the continent
Darwin thought the fossils represented ancestral forms of the living organism
Unearthed Glyptodon with resemblance to modern armadillo and Megatherium with resemblance to modern sloth
Galapagos Islands
Darwin collected 26 birds (including large number of finches and 3 species of mocking birds)
Darwin found the ____________ to be inhabited by flying organisms, and land animals that could survive long periods at sea with no food or fresh water
Darwin’s Shaping of the Theory of Evolution
Homologous and Analogous Features
Vestigial Features and Anatomical Oddities
Artificial Selection
Survival of the Fittest
Homologous Features
body parts of organisms with entirely different functions for similar structures
Analogous Features
body parts shared by many organisms and serving a common function, with different internal anatomy
Vestigial Features
structures that serve no useful function but are homologous to fully functioning structures
ex. appendix, ear muscles (humans have the muscles to move years but don’t use them like other animals due to lack of useful function), tail bone, split bone in horse leg, snake leg bones, whale hipbone
Artificial Selection
selecting individuals with the most desirable traits and mating them to produce next-gen.
all species possess inherited variations that can be selected to change the species in desirable ways
Survival of the fittest
everything producing more offspring than are able to survive so favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones destroyed
competition between individuals in a species, those who survive have favourable traits which will be passed on
gene
portion of DNA that codes for traits
loci
location of a gene on the DNA molecule
Allele
different forms of a gene
homozygous
two identical alleles for a trait
heterozygous
two diff alleles for a trait
genome
complete set of all alleles possessed by an individual organism
all members of the same species have the same genome
Genotype
the set of alleles
genome of a species will be the same, but their specific genotype (combination of alleles) will be different
Phenotype
observable taints coded by the genotype
natural selection works on the phenotype, thereby altering the genotype
Genetic Variation
variation within a species is a result of the variety and combination of alleles possessed by individuals
sexual reproduction results in random recombination of different alleles and results in a high degree of genetic diversity within most populations
Gene Pool
the genetic information of an entire population
population
members of the same species living in the same region
allele frequency
the proportion of gene copies in a population of a given allele
evolutionary change can be measured in part by looking for changes in ______________
How Hardy-Weinberg principle came to be
Punnett posed questions to mathematician, Godfrey Hardy about allele frequencies and he wrote the solution on a napkin
in meantime, a German physician Wilhelm Weinbery formulated the same solution
What does the Hardy-Weinberg Principle show
that allele frequencies will not change from generation to generation as long as certain conditions are met like a large population, equal mating opportunities, no mutations, no migration and no natural selections (equal chance of reproductive success)
p in H-W equation
frequency of allele A
q in H-W equation
frequency of allele a
Microevolution
when frequency of an allele changes, occurs before evolution
evolutionary changes that occur at the species level
Macroevolution
evolution of population
Mutation
change that occurs in the DNA of an individual which can affect a gene pool
can cause a trait that will benefit that individual in a population
gene will be passed down and that trait will appear more often
Gene Flow
movement of alleles from one population to another as a result of migration of individuals
ex. when a grey wolf (very large territories) travels to another population to find a mate
Non-random Mating
Preferred Phenotype or Inbreeding
Preferred Phenotype
non-random mating
females often choose mates based on their physical and behavioural traits
want their offspring to benefit from mate’s genes
only individuals that mate will contribute to the gene pool of the next generation
Inbreeding
non-random mating
when closely related individuals mate
increases occurrence of homozygous individuals
can also cause an increase in harmful recessive alleles
Genetic Drift
The change in frequencies of alleles due to chance events
affects smaller populations
better chance certain alleles will show up more often in the population is smaller
The founder effect
Genetic Drift
the change in gene pool when a few individuals start a new, isolate population
will carry some, not all alleles from population, if the alleles they carry are rare, more likely to increase in the population
happens often in islands
e.g. polydactylism in Amish communities
Bottleneck Effect
gene pool change the results from a rapid decrease in population size, can be cuz of starvation, disease, human activates, natural disasters, etc.
Survivors likely have only a fraction of the alleles that were present in the original population
e.g. animals close to extinction and rejuvenated have low genetic diversity
Natural selection
causes change in allele frequencies of a population, which can lead to evolutionary change
How does natural selection occur
by having a single allele that gives even a slight, yet consistent, selective advantage, the frequency of the allele in the population will increase
that individual will survive to reproductive age and pass on that allele to the next-gen
types of Natural Selection
stabilizing selection
directional selection
disruptive selection
factors that change allele frequencies
mutation
gene flow (migration)
genetic drift
natural selection
Stabilizing Selection
favors the intermediate phenotype and eliminates the extreme
Directional Selection
favours the the extreme phenotype, and occurs when there is an environmental change or if there is a new niche to exploit
Disruptive selection
favours both extremes in the phenotype eliminating the intermediate
sexual selection
competition between males through combat or visual displays
_______________ theory: males will compete with each other to access mates and females will be choosy
sexual dimorphism, male-male combat, sperm competition, infanticide, female choice
Adaption
a trait that increase the reproductive fitness of its possessor
giraffe neck fighting
before classifying something as an adaption:
determine what a trait is for
show that the individuals possessing that trait contribute more genes to future generations than organisms lacking it
Sexual Dimorphism
a difference between males and females of a species
Reproductive success
having a better chance at passing your genes on in future generations
challenges: surviving long enough to reproduce and finding a mate
Intrasexual Selection
males compete, and females choose a winner
types: combat, sperm competition, infanticide
Intersexual Selection
males advertise by singing, dancing, or showing off and females choose male with best display
Combat
the most obvious form of male-male competition for mates, favours traits like large body size, weaponry, armour and tactile cleverness
Sperm Competition
male-male competition does not necessarily stop when copulation is over, mating success actually refers to if his sperm fertilizes the eggs
if female mates with two males in a short time, then the sperm will be in a race to the egg
Adaptions for Sperm Competition
Release more sperm (better odds)
males guarding their mates
prolong copulation
deposit a copulatory plug
relase pheromones that reduce the female’s attractiveness
Infanticide
competition amoung males continues even after conception
in lions, female will not return to breeding until her cubs are weaned, so if a new male enters the pride, he will kill the cubs to increase his reproductive success
Female Reproductive success against infanticide
defend cubs from males (often results in their own death along with cubs) or spontaneously abort any pregnancies in progress when a new group of males gains residence in a pride (reduces the amount of energy she invests carrying the cubs to term, just to have them killed anyway)
Fossil Record
the remains and traces of past life that are found in sedimentary rock; it reveals the history of life on Earth and the kinds of organisms that were alive in the past
Burgess Shale Fossils Beds in BC
where fossils of animals that lived in an ancient ocean during the Cambrian period, over 500 years ago were found
preserved some of the earliest animals with hard parts to be seen in the fossil record
transitional fossil
fossils that shows intermediary links between groups of organisms and shares characteristics common to two separate groups
helped scientists better understand the evolutionary process and relationships between groups of organisms
link fossils of the past and present
Vestigial Structure
a structure that is reduced version of a structure that was functional in the organism’s ancestors
biogeography
the study of the past and present geographical distribution of species population
supports Darwin and Wallace’s hypothesis that species evolve in one location and then spreads out to other regions
Speciation
the formation of an entirely new species
Reproductive Isolation
when populations become two species
occurs when there is little or no gene flow between them
can be pre-zygotic or post-zygotic
Pre-Zygotic
Also called pre-fertilization barriers
can impede the mating of species and prevent fertilization of eggs if individuals from different species attempt to mate
Ecological/Habitat Isolation
Pre-zygotic: Prevention of mating
when species occupy same general region, but separate habitats, or separate niches of the same habitat, do not encounter one another to reproduce
ex. woodchucks and squirrels in alpine meadows
Temporal Isolation
Pre-zygotic: Prevention of mating
compatible species inhabit an overlapping range but their reproductive cycles occur at different times
more common in plants
Behavioral Isolation
Pre-zygotic: Prevention of mating
a distinct mating ritual by one closely related species not being recognized by another species
Mechanical Isolation
Pre-zygotic: Prevention of fertilization
Structural differences in reproductive organs can prevent copulation
Gametic Isolation
Pre-zygotic: Prevention of fertilization
If the gametes ever meet, they will rarely fuse to form a zygote. Molecular level
Post-Zygotic
sometimes the sperm of one species can successfully fertilize the egg of another species and produce a zygote
___________ prevents these zygotes from developing into viable, fertile individuals
types: hybrid inviability, hybrid sterility, hybrid breakdown
Hybrid Inviability
the development of the zygote may stop due to the genetic incompatibility
ex. goat and sheep embryos die before development cuz mitosis is prevented
Hybrid Sterility
when two species mate and produce hybrid offspring that is sterile (meiosis prevents normal gametes-chromosomes may differ in number or structure)
Hybrid Breakdown
two species mate to produce hybrid offspring that are fertile and can mate, but their offspring are sterile and weak
ex. cotton plants produce fertile hybrids but the offspring die as seeds
more in plant kingdom
Types of Speciation
Allopatric
Sympatric
Allopatric Speciation
species evolving differently due to geographical isolation
ex. founder populations after being separated from OG population
Types of of barriers that create allopatric speciation
large river or canyon for small rodents or snakes
large bodies of water for weak birds
dams, canals or major highways for aquatic species
Sympatric Speciation
evolution of population in same geographical location into different species
some populations split into separate gene pools and continue to share similar geographical location
Adaptive Radiation
Form of allopatric speciation, where there is diversification of a common ancestor species into a variety of differently adapted species
occurs in islands often since there are a number if new niches able to be exploited
greater biodiversity
ex. Darwins Flinches
Forms of Evolution
Divergent Evolution
Convergent Evolution
Divergent Evolution
Organisms that were once similar to an ancestral speices diverge, or become more distinct
adapted to diff environmental conditions
Convergent Evolution
similar traits arise in unrelated species because each species have independently adapted to similar environmental conditions
not common ancestor
Speed of Evolutionary Change
gradualism
punctuated equilibrium
Gradualism
model of evolution that views evolutionary change as slow and steady, before and after divergence
Punctuated Equilibrium
model of evolution that views evolutionary history as long periods of stasis, or equilibrium, that are interrupted by periods of divergence
Archaeopteryx
show transitional stage in the fossil record cuz this species has characteristics of both reptiles (dinos) and birds
Embryology
the study of early-pre-birth stages of an organisms development
used to determine evolutionary relationship between animals
similarities between embryos in related groups (such as vertebrae) point to common ancestral origin
DNA and common ancestors
since DNA carries genetic info, it can be used to determine how closely related two organisms are
similar DNA patterns mean that these DNA sequences must have been inherited from common ancestors
The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
individuals within species vary in many ways
some variability can be inherited
every generation produces way more offspring than can survive and pass on variations
populations of species tend to remain a stable size
Rev. Malthus
population increases exponentially and food linearly
as human popu continues to increase, food supply won’t be able to keep up (critical point when popu and food lines meet) and will run out and will lead to famine death and destruction
Wallace
father of biogeography
studied geographic distribution of species, learned that the fittest survived and reproduced, passing traits on to offspring
Huxley
studied natural history with a focus on marine invertebrate
thought that large-scale mutations—evolutionary jumps termed “saltations”—were more important than variations acted upon by natural selection
defended and advocated for Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection
Darwins Bulldog
Radiometric Dating
method used to establish how old an object is by measuring amount of radioisotopes the object contains against the decay product it contains
when an organism dies it stops taking in carbon-14 and the existing isotopes decays with a characteristic half-life (5730-years)