U1- Biological bases of behavior- P3 *and a bit of U2

Sensation

The process of detecting physical energy from the environment and converting it into neural signals.
Example: Feeling the warmth of the sun on your skin.

sensory receptors

Specialized cells that detect stimuli (light, sound, pressure, etc.) and send signals to the brain.
Example: Photoreceptors in the eyes detect light, allowing us to see.

perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to make it meaningful.
Example: Recognizing a friend's face in a crowd.

bottom up processing

The process of building up a perception from basic sensory information.
Example: Seeing individual lines and shapes that combine to form a complete image.

top down processing

The process of using prior knowledge, experiences, and expectations to interpret sensory information.
Example: Expecting a certain word in a sentence and filling it in if it's missing letters (like "c_t" for "cat").

selective attention

The process of focusing on one specific task or stimulus while ignoring others.
Example: Focusing on a conversation at a noisy party and tuning out background chatter.

inattentional blindness

Failing to see visible objects or events because attention is focused elsewhere.

Example: Not noticing a person in a gorilla suit walking through a basketball game because you're focused on counting passes.

change blindness

Failing to notice significant changes in the environment, often because of a lack of attention.

Example: Not noticing when someone’s clothing changes during a conversation.

transduction

The process of converting sensory input into neural signals that the brain can interpret.

Example: Photoreceptors in the eye converting light into neural signals.

psychophysics

The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce.

Example: Investigating how changes in sound intensity affect how loud a person perceives it.

absolute thresholds

The minimum stimulus intensity needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Example: The faintest sound you can hear in a quiet room.

signal detection theory

A theory explaining how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus, considering the intensity of the stimulus and the person's psychological state.

Example: A doctor detecting a faint heart murmur amidst other noises in a hospital.

subliminal

Below the threshold of conscious awareness.

Example: A brief flash of text or image in a movie that doesn’t reach conscious awareness but may influence thoughts.

difference threshold

The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time.

Example: Noticing a slight increase in the brightness of a light.

weber’s law

The principle that the size of a noticeable difference is proportional to the size of the original stimulus

Example: You’ll notice a difference in weight more easily with lighter objects than with heavier ones.

sensory adaptation

The diminished sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time.

Example: Not feeling your clothes after wearing them for a while

perceptual set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another, shaped by experience and expectations.

Example: If you expect a friend to wear a red shirt, you might overlook them if they wear a different color.

extrasensory perception

The ability to gain information through means other than the known senses, such as telepathy or clairvoyance.

Example: Claiming to know someone's thoughts without hearing them speak.

parapsychology

The study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis.

wavelength

The distance between two peaks of a wave, influencing color in light and pitch in sound.

Example: Shorter wavelengths of light appear blue, while longer wavelengths appear red.

hue

The color we perceive, determined by the wavelength of light.

Example: Red, blue, and green are different hues.

intensity

The amount of energy in a wave, related to the perceived brightness of light or loudness of sound.

Example: A brighter light or louder sound has higher intensity.

cornea

The transparent outer layer of the eye that focuses light.

Example: The cornea helps direct light into the eye.

pupil

The adjustable opening in the center of the eye that controls the amount of light entering.

Example: In bright light, the pupil constricts to allow less light in.

iris

The colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil.

Example: The iris adjusts the pupil’s size depending on light conditions.

lens

A transparent structure in the eye that focuses light onto the retina. Example: The ___ changes shape to focus on objects at different distances (accommodation).

retina

The light-sensitive surface at the back of the eye, where visual information is processed.

Example: The retina converts light into neural signals for the brain to interpret

accommodation

The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus on objects at different distances.

Example: When reading a book up close, the lens accommodates to focus clearly.

rods

Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for vision in low light. Example: Rods help you see in dim light but don't detect color.

cones

Photoreceptor cells in the retina that detect color and fine detail in bright light.

Example: Cones help you see colors like red and blue.

optic nerve

The nerve that carries visual information from the retina to the brain. Example: The optic nerve transmits the visual data needed for sight.

blind spot

The point where the optic nerve leaves the retina, with no photoreceptors, so no visual information is received. Example: You can’t see anything in the blind spot of your eye.

fovea

The central point in the retina, responsible for sharp central vision. Example: When you focus directly on an object, it is projected onto the fovea for clear vision.

young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory

The theory that the retina contains three types of color receptors—red, green, and blue—which combine to create all other colors.

Example: The combination of red, green, and blue cones allows us to see a full spectrum of color.

opponent-process theory

The theory that color perception is controlled by three opponent pairs of colors: red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white.

Example: After staring at a red image, you may see a green afterimage due to the opponent-process system.

feature detectors

Neurons in the brain that respond to specific features of a stimulus, like edges or angles.

Example: Some neurons in the visual cortex respond only to vertical lines.

parallel processing

The ability of the brain to process multiple aspects of a problem simultaneously, such as color, motion, and form.

Example: When you see a moving car, your brain processes its color, shape, and motion at the same time.

gestalt

A theory that we perceive whole forms rather than just the sum of parts. Example: Seeing a square instead of individual lines and angles.

figure ground

The tendency to perceive objects as distinct from their background. Example: In a black-and-white image, the black figure stands out from the white background.

grouping

The tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

Example: You group dots into rows or columns when presented in a pattern.

depth-perception

The ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and judge distances.

Example: The ability to judge how far away a person is from you.

visual cliff

An experimental apparatus used to study depth perception in infants. Example: Infants may refuse to crawl across the "cliff" because they sense a drop.

binocular cues

Depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes.

Example: Retinal disparity (the difference in images from each eye) helps perceive depth.

retinal disparity

A binocular cue for depth perception, where the brain compares the slightly different images from each eye to judge distance.

Example: The closer an object, the greater the disparity between the two images.

monocular cues

Depth cues that are available to either eye alone.

Example: Relative size or texture gradient gives us depth perception even with one eye.

phi-phenomenon

The illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.

Example: The flashing lights of a movie theater marquee create a sense of movement.

perceptual constancy

The ability to perceive objects as stable despite changes in sensory input.

Example: Recognizing a door as rectangular even when viewed at an angle.

color constancy

Perceiving familiar objects as having a consistent color, even when the lighting changes.

Example: A red apple looks red whether in daylight or under a streetlight.

perceptual adaptation

The ability to adjust to an artificially altered visual field, such as glasses that shift your vision.

Example: Adapting to wearing glasses that invert your vision.

audition

The sense of hearing.

Example: Hearing a bell ring.

frequency

The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given period of time; determines pitch.

Example: A high-frequency sound is perceived as a high pitch.

pitch

A tone's experienced highness or lowness, which is determined by frequency.

Example: A flute produces high-pitched sounds, while a bass guitar produces low-pitched sounds.

middle ear

The part of the ear containing the eardrum and ossicles (tiny bones that transmit sound).

Example: The hammer, anvil, and stirrup bones amplify sound vibrations.

cochlea

A spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear responsible for converting sound vibrations into neural signals.

Example: Hair cells in the cochlea detect sound waves and send signals to the brain.

inner ear

The part of the ear that includes the cochlea, vestibular sacs, and auditory nerve.

Example: The inner ear is responsible for both hearing and balance.

sensorineural hearing loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve. Example: Prolonged exposure to loud sounds can cause sensorineural hearing loss.

conduction hearing loss

Hearing loss caused by problems with the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

Example: A punctured eardrum can lead to conduction hearing loss.

cochlear implant

A device that stimulates the auditory nerve to restore hearing for people with sensorineural hearing loss.

Example: A cochlear implant can help a deaf person hear sounds.

gate-control theory

The theory that the spinal cord contains a "gate" that blocks or allows pain signals to reach the brain.

Example: Rubbing your arm after bumping it can reduce pain by "closing the gate."

olfaction

The sense of smell.

Example: The ability to smell a flower.

kinesthesia

The sense of the position and movement of individual body parts. Example: Being able to close your eyes and touch your nose.

vestibular sense

The sense of balance and spatial orientation.

Example: Feeling dizzy after spinning due to the vestibular system in the inner ear.