Psychology

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Empirical Evidence

The type of evidence that is gained through research studies.

Behavior

Observable actions that can be directly measured systematically.

Mental Processes

Non-observable actions that can be measured systematically (sensations, thoughts, emotions, etc.).

Structuralism

The type of Psychology that breaks mental processes into their basic elements.

Functionalism

The type of Psychology that analyzes the function or purpose of the conscious experience.

Systematic Introspection

The process of looking inward to describe experiences.

Contemporary approaches

Modern methods to understand psychological phenomena.

Biological approach

The body's influence on behavior and thoughts.

Behavioral approach

Environmental impacts on measurable behavior.

Psychodynamic approach

Unconscious conflicts affecting behavior.

Humanistic approach

Personal growth and self-actualization.

Cognitive approach

The influence of thoughts on behavior.

Sociocultural approach

The role of social and cultural factors in psychology.

Scientific Method

A technique that generates empirical knowledge by systematically seeking answers to testable questions about mind and behavior.

Observe

The first step of the scientific method, involving the careful examination of phenomena.

Hypothesize

The second step of the scientific method, where a testable prediction is formulated based on observations.

Test

The third step of the scientific method, involving experimentation or data collection to evaluate the hypothesis.

Conclusions

The fourth step of the scientific method, where results are analyzed to determine if they support or refute the hypothesis.

Evaluate

The final step of the scientific method, which involves assessing the validity and reliability of the findings and the methods used.

Variable

Any factor, trait, or condition that can exist in differing amounts or types or vary across individuals.

Theories

Broad integrated principles that explain and predict observed events, composed of abstract ideas or concepts linked together logically.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated or expected to affect other variables.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is expected to be affected by the independent variable.

Within-Subjects Design

An experimental design where the same participants are exposed to all conditions of the experiment.

Quasi-experimental Design

A research design similar to a true experiment but lacks random assignment due to the independent variable being a preexisting condition that cannot be manipulated.

Internal Validity

The degree to which a study accurately demonstrates that changes in the independent variable caused changes in the dependent variable.

External Validity

The extent to which study results can be generalized to real-world situations outside of the study.

Nervous System

The body’s electrochemical communication system that integrates all five senses into one perceived reality.

Neurotransmitters

Electrochemical transmitters that facilitate communication in the brain through chemicals and electric signals.

Action Potential

A rapid change in a neuron's or muscle cell's membrane potential, triggered by a depolarizing stimulus.

Brain’s Plasticity

The brain’s ability to change and adapt over time.

Synapse

The part of the neuron that reads electro signals and converts information into chemicals to send across the synaptic gap.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The nerves that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

The part of the PNS that includes our senses and motor neurons.

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the PNS that controls organs and involuntary actions, such as the digestive system.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic system responsible for the activation of stress and arousal (fight or flight response).

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic system responsible for relaxing the body after stress or arousal.

Neuron

Brain nerve cells that handle information processing.

Glial Cells

Brain cells that provide support and nutritional benefits.

Mirror Neurons

Brain cells that activate when observing an action, responsible for empathy and understanding others' positions.

Cell Body

The part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and organelles.

Dendrites

Structures that receive messages from other neurons.

Axon

The part of the neuron that sends messages to other neurons.

Myelin Sheath

Fat cells that encase the axon, aiding in the transmission of neural information.

Axon Hillock

The area where neural information is processed and the action potential is initiated.

Action Potential

The electrical charge that occurs when a neuron fires, typically at a threshold of -55mV.

Vesicles

Large groups of neurotransmitters that are sent during signal transmission.

Reuptake

The process of recycling neurotransmitters after they have been used in signal transmission.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter linked to movement, attention, learning, reinforcement, schizophrenia, and Parkinson’s disease.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in movement, learning, memory, REM sleep, and linked to Alzheimer’s disease.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter responsible for mood, sleep, appetite, impulsivity, aggression, and linked to anxiety, depression, and eating disorders.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that provide relief from pain and promote feelings of pleasure and wellbeing.

Antagonist Neurotransmitters

Drugs that inhibit the effects of neurotransmitters.

Agonist Neurotransmitters

Drugs that mimic or increase the effects of neurotransmitters.

Hindbrain

The part of the brain that includes the Medulla, Pons, and Cerebellum, responsible for basic life functions.

Medulla

A structure that controls vital automatic functions such as heartbeat and breathing, and reflexes like coughing and sneezing.

Pons

The bridge connecting the Cerebellum and brain stem, involved in sleep and arousal.

Cerebellum

Known as the "Little Brain," it controls complex motor movements.

Brain Stem

Connects the spinal cord and extends upward, including much of the hindbrain but not the Cerebellum.

Midbrain

Relays physiological messages from the hindbrain to the forebrain, includes the Substantia Nigra and Reticular Formation.

Thalamus

A relay station for all sensory messages except for smell.

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, sexual behavior, emotional behavior, and internal body temperature.

Limbic System

A collection of brain structures involved in emotional expression, memory, and motivation.

Amygdala

Responsible for intense emotional responses like fear and links emotions to memories.

Hippocampus

Stores new memories and provides navigation skills through an internal "map."

Cerebral Cortex

Responsible for higher mental processes such as language, memory, and thinking, divided into four lobes.

Frontal Lobe

The motor area controlling voluntary movements, associated with thinking, planning, and speech production (Broca’s Area).

Parietal Lobe

The somatosensory area responsible for touch, pain sensors, and body awareness.

Temporal Lobes

The primary auditory cortex, home to Wernicke’s Area for language comprehension.

Occipital Lobes

The primary visual cortex responsible for processing visual information.

Corpus Callosum

Nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain, transferring information and synchronizing activity.

Divided Brain

The brain's two hemispheres control opposite sides of the body and have specialized functions (right for creativity, left for logic).

Right Hemisphere

The brain hemisphere responsible for Music Processing, Emotional Thinking, and Perceiving Visual-spatial relations

Left Hemisphere

The brain hemisphere responsible for Spoken Language, numerical skills, and reasoning (logic)

Genes

Biochemical units of heredity that carry genetic characteristics.

Behavioral Genetics

The study of how much behavior is influenced by genetics versus the environment.

Heritability

A statistical measure of how much a trait is inherited versus influenced by other factors.

Twin/Adoption Studies

Research methods used

Sensation

The process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment and transforming those energies into neural energies.

Perception

The process used to arrive at a meaningful interpretation of sensations.

Bottom-Up Processing

A processing method that starts with actual physical messages, where sensory receptors receive information and send it to the brain.

Top-Down Processing

A processing method that begins with cognitive processing in the brain, using knowledge, beliefs, and expectations to organize and interpret incoming information.

Sensory Receptor Cells

Specialized cells within sense organs that transmit stimulus information to sensory nerves and the brain.

Absolute Threshold

The smallest magnitude of a stimulus that can be detected.

Difference Threshold

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

Weber’s Law

The principle stating that the difference threshold between two stimuli depends on the strength of the original stimulus.

Sensory Adaptation

The change in responsiveness due to the average level of surrounding stimulation.

Vision

The ability to see, which requires light to be directed toward the receptor cells in the eye.

Light

A form of electromagnetic energy that is essential for vision, composed of different components.

Hue

The color perceived, determined by the wavelength of light.

Brightness

The intensity of light, influenced by the amplitude and amount of light falling on an object.

Purity

The complexity of light, determined by the mix of wavelengths present, affecting color saturation.

Cornea

The protective outer layer of the eye that first receives light and aids in focusing.

Pupil

The opening in the iris that allows light to enter the eye.

Iris

The colored part of the eye that regulates the amount of light entering.

Lens

The transparent structure behind the pupil that focuses light onto the retina by changing shape.

Retina

The thin layer of tissue at the back of the eye containing receptor cells that convert light into neural impulses.

Rods

Receptor cells in the retina sensitive to light, essential for generating visual signals.