Foundations of Early River Civilizations—Mesopotamia Focus

32 question-and-answer flashcards covering the lecture’s key terms, concepts, people, and events related to the characteristics of civilizations and the early Mesopotamian world.

What is the basic definition of a civilization given in class?

A large society featuring cities and powerful, organized states.

Why did early villages grow into walled cities?

For protection from hostile humans and predatory animals.

What key economic goal did every early civilization strive to achieve first?

An agricultural surplus (more food than immediate need).

How does an agricultural surplus lead to specialization of labor?

With food security, some people can focus on specific jobs other than farming, enabling diverse occupations.

Give two negative social effects that accompanied specialization of labor.

The end of equality and the rise of discrimination or social stratification.

What term describes a society’s graded levels like freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors?

A stratified or hierarchical social structure.

Besides enjoyment, why was writing first developed in civilizations?

To keep records such as receipts and official accounts.

What are ‘complex institutions’ in the context of early civilizations?

Organized systems of governance, such as governments and administrative divisions.

In early civilizations, religion mainly served what practical purpose?

To explain natural phenomena and the otherwise unexplainable events of life.

What is meant by ‘artistic expression’ in early cultures?

Activities such as drawing, sculpting, building, and decorating that reflect cultural values.

Name the four major early river civilizations introduced in the unit.

Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, and India.

Where was Mesopotamia located?

Between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in the Fertile Crescent.

What natural substance made Mesopotamian soil fertile after floods?

Silt—mineral-rich soil deposited by rivers.

What was the first known Mesopotamian civilization?

Sumer.

Define a Mesopotamian ‘city-state.’

A city and its surrounding countryside that functioned as an independent political unit.

Which economic system did Sumerians use before coined money?

Barter—trading goods and services directly.

Was Sumerian religion monotheistic or polytheistic?

Polytheistic (belief in many gods).

What massive stepped structure was central to each Sumerian city?

A ziggurat.

List three non-religious functions of a ziggurat.

City protection, tax collection, and administrative (city management) center.

What term describes the spread of ideas and culture through trade?

Cultural diffusion.

Name the earliest known system of writing in Mesopotamia.

Cuneiform—wedge-shaped impressions on wet clay.

Who were trained to write cuneiform on clay tablets?

Scribes.

What famous Sumerian literary work was recorded in cuneiform?

The Epic of Gilgamesh.

Give two lasting Sumerian technological or intellectual achievements.

A base-60 number system (foundation of modern time measurement) and the metal plow.

Why are Sumerian women notable compared with later societies?

They had comparatively more rights—they could own property, join the priesthood, and work as merchants or farmers.

Who created the world’s first empire by conquering Sumer?

Sargon of Akkad.

Around 2000 BCE, which group built the city of Babylon?

The Amorites (leading to the Babylonian civilization).

Which Babylonian king issued a famous law code?

King Hammurabi (reigned 1792 BCE).

How many laws were in Hammurabi’s Code, and on what principle were they based?

282 laws based on the principle of retribution (an eye for an eye).

How did Hammurabi justify his laws to the populace?

He claimed they were given to him by the gods.

In Hammurabi’s Code, how were punishments influenced by social factors?

Penalties differed according to a person’s gender and social class.

Differentiate astronomy and astrology as pursued by the Babylonians.

Astronomy studies celestial bodies scientifically; astrology interprets how celestial positions influence human affairs.