Unit 2 Ap psych study guide

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119 Terms

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sensation

Simple awareness due to the stimulation of a sense organ

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perception

Organization, identification, and interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation

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Bottom-Up Processing

We notice what we “see” first

Sensory analysis starts at entry level

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Top-Down Processing

We notice what we “interpret” first

Constructing perceptions drawing both on sensations coming in and our experiences, expectations, and prior knowledge

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schemas

Cognitive framework, based on previous knowledge and experience, that help us organize and interpret incoming information

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perceptual sets

psychological sets that rely on familiar ways of perceiving stimuli; readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way

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attention

interaction of sensation and perception that is affected by internal and external processes

Conscious awareness focuses on a very limited area of what you experience.

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what are the types of selective attention

cocktail party effect, in attentional blindness, change blindness

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cocktail party effect

Focus on 1 voice out of many; able to focus on/hear their name or specific topics in loud or distracting environments

Auditory cortex boosts some sounds to help the brain prioritize what’s important (due to RAS)

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inattentional blindness

You miss stimuli in the environment since your attention is elsewhere in the moment

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change blindness

Failing to notice changes in visual field/ environment as a result of inattention

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what are the types of perception

Form Perception

Depth Perception

Motion Perception

Perceptual Constancy

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form perception

we must perceive a figure from its ground

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depth perception

Seeing objects in 3 dimensions allows us to estimate distance

Retina sees 2 dimensional images – brain takes those images and organizes into 3 dimensions

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motion perception

brain computes motion as images move across retina

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perceptual constancy

being able to recognize an object no matter the angle, distance, or illumination

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what are the types of gestalt methods of perception

proximity, similarity, continuity, connectedness, closure

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proximity

Grouping things that are close together

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similarity

Items that are the same or similar

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continuity

perceive continuous patterns

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connectedness

When together, look like a single unit

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closure

We fill in gaps to form a whole object

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what are the 2 main ways we perceive depth

binocular cues, monocular cues

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binocular cues

Using 2 eyes

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monocular cues

Aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye.

Can give the illusion of depth on flat or two-dimensional surfaces

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retinal disparity

he difference between the retinal images of our 2 eyes provides information about depth

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convergence

a cue to nearby objects’ distance, enabled by the merging of retinal images by the brain

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what are the types of monocular cues

texture gradient, relative size, relative height, interposition, linear perspective, light and shadow, relative clarity

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texture gradient

textures are more clear up front and move closer together as get farther away

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relative size

Objects that are close appear bigger and objects farther away appear smaller

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relative height

Objects closer to us are lower in our field of vision and those farther away appear higher

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interposition

When one object blocks another, the one in front is perceived as closer

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linear perspective

Parallel lines seem to converge in the distance

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light and shadow

closer objects appear brighter; shading produces depth.

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relative clarity

Hazy objects perceived as distant

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motion perception

apparent movement can be visually perceived even when objects are not actually moving

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motion parallax

Objects closer move past faster than objects farther away/in the distance

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Stroboscopic Movement

Brain sees rapid series of slightly different images as movement (cartoon flip book)

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Phi phenomenon

Lights turning on and off we perceive as movement

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what are the types of perceptual constancy

shape, color, size

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shape

We perceive form of a familiar object to be the same even when the retinal image changes

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color

We perceive familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

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size

We perceive certain objects to have an unchanging size (no matter how far we are)

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illusion

where you perceive one thing but in reality it is something different. This can be for perception types like size, depth

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Ponzo Illusion

an illusion of size in which two objects of equal size are positioned between two converging lines so they appear to be different sizes

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Ames room

confuses assumptions of the horizontal and vertical natures of square rooms

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cognitive perspective

looks at how we use logic to:

Solve problems

Make decisions

Form judgments

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prototype

The best/most typical example of any given concept

Think of it at the first thing that comes to mind

Helps for easy sorting by matching new items to prototypes (aka- how does this best match the most typical example?)

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schemas

frameworks for thinking

Patterns of thinking and behavior that people use to interpret the world

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assimilation

improving existing knowledge of something thanks to new but congruent information; not changing the schema

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accomodation

taking in new information and changing the existing knowledge (schema) to incorporate the new information that contradicts previous thinking

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algorithms

Step by step/well-defined procedures or set of rules

Addresses problems by attempting all possible solutions until correct one is found

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heuristics

Reduce number of options with “mental shortcuts” to make judgements; experience-based strategy but doesn’t guarantee a correct outcome

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insight

“Aha!” moment

The solution just comes to us

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creativity

Coming up with new or novel ideas and engaging in divergent thinking (instead of convergent)

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convergent thinking

Looking for the “right” answer

What is expected, used to

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divergent thinking

Looking for a unique/creative answer

Looking at different approaches

Hindered by functional fixedness

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executive functions

Cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking

Frontal lobes

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representatives heuristics

Judge the likelihood of things based on if they fit a prototype (using stereotypes) or prior expectations

-Allows you to make snap judgment, which may be erroneous

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availability heuristics

Estimate probability of an event based on how easily the information pops in our mind; recalling the first or most vivid example that comes to mind

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overconfidence

We tend to overestimate our knowledge

We believe we our answers are correct even if we don’t really know

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belief perseverance

We cling to our beliefs even if evidence proves them wrong

We make excuses about the evidence

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fixation

Unable to change perspectives; a preoccupation with a single idea, impulse, or aim

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mental set

prior experiences that were successful

Leads to sticking to most familiar and ignoring alternatives

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functional fixedness

We only think of a typical use for an object

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priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

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framing

process of defining context or issues surrounding a question, problem, or event in a way that serves to influence how context or issues are perceived

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Gambler’s Fallacy

the mistaken belief that past events can influence future events that are entirely independent of them in reality

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sunk-cost fallacy

our tendency to continue with an endeavor we’ve invested money, effort, or time into- even if current costs outweigh the benefits

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memory

the persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval

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encoding

the information gets into our brains in a way that allows it to be stored

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storage

the information is held in a way that allows it to later be retrieved

Depending on the type of memory, it is stored in different parts of the brain

Rehearsal of information over time in ways that promote meaning helps with memory retention and retrieval

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retrieval

reactivating and recalling the information, producing it in a form similar to what was encoded

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shallow processing

trying to learn ideas on a superficial level

(only memorizing)

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deep processing

elaborative rehearsal with meaningful analysis of ideas and words being learned

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automatic encoding

Encoding that is done unconsciously, with incidental information

Makes implicit memories such as procedures

Skips multi-store model steps

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effortful encoding

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Makes explicit memories such as episodic and semantic

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mnemonic devices

processes that aid in encoding info into working and long-term memory

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spacing effect

when info is encoded impacts memory

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massed practice

all at once

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distributed practice

spaced out over time

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explicit memory

These are facts and experiences that we can consciously know and recall and more easily explain to others

Formed through studying, rehearsing, thinking, processing, and then storing information into long-term

hippocampus and frontal lobes

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implicit memory

Memories formed without our awareness and without rehearsal or going through working memory, forego the Multi-Store model

Harder to describe/explain

Cerebellum, basal ganglia

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perspective memory

Type of memory related to future actions

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sensory memory

processing everything coming in from our senses

Happens within seconds max

If you do not pay attention to this info, will leave our brains

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what are the types of sensory memories

ionic and echoic

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short term memory

can hold small amounts of information for short periods of time

Will only be able to hold 4-7 pieces of information at a time

Working memory involves the conscious, active processing of both incoming sensory info AND info retrieved from long-term memory

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long term memory

This requires encoding

If encoding/rehearsal does not happen, it will be forgotten

Once in Long-Term Memory, it can be theoretically stored indefinitely

Often is based on its relative importance to the individual

Interconnectedness

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types of long term memory

episodic, semantic, and procedural

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episodic memory

Stories of our own lives and experiences we can recall to tell someone else

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semantic memories

Everyday, common knowledge and basic facts, such as 2+2=4 and the names of color

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procedura memories

Memories of how to do something such as how to write or ride a bike

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memory consolidation

process of moving memories from hippocampus to long-term memory elsewhere in brain

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maintenance rehearsal

Memorize information for short term

Uses repetition without contextualization

Often leads to forgetting in a short time

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elaborative rehearsal

Helps commit info to long-term memory

Contextualization of info for better storage and retrieval

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flashbulb memories

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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reconsolidation

Every time we recall the memory, it may potentially change before being stored again

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recall

direct retrieval of facts or information (“fill-in-the-blank”)

Remembering without cues

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recognition

correct identification of previously learned material (“multiple choice”)

Relies on cues

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retrieval cues

Anchor points to help you retrieve information