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sensation
Simple awareness due to the stimulation of a sense organ
perception
Organization, identification, and interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation
Bottom-Up Processing
We notice what we “see” first
Sensory analysis starts at entry level
Top-Down Processing
We notice what we “interpret” first
Constructing perceptions drawing both on sensations coming in and our experiences, expectations, and prior knowledge
schemas
Cognitive framework, based on previous knowledge and experience, that help us organize and interpret incoming information
perceptual sets
psychological sets that rely on familiar ways of perceiving stimuli; readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way
attention
interaction of sensation and perception that is affected by internal and external processes
Conscious awareness focuses on a very limited area of what you experience.
what are the types of selective attention
cocktail party effect, in attentional blindness, change blindness
cocktail party effect
Focus on 1 voice out of many; able to focus on/hear their name or specific topics in loud or distracting environments
Auditory cortex boosts some sounds to help the brain prioritize what’s important (due to RAS)
inattentional blindness
You miss stimuli in the environment since your attention is elsewhere in the moment
change blindness
Failing to notice changes in visual field/ environment as a result of inattention
what are the types of perception
Form Perception
Depth Perception
Motion Perception
Perceptual Constancy
form perception
we must perceive a figure from its ground
depth perception
Seeing objects in 3 dimensions allows us to estimate distance
Retina sees 2 dimensional images – brain takes those images and organizes into 3 dimensions
motion perception
brain computes motion as images move across retina
perceptual constancy
being able to recognize an object no matter the angle, distance, or illumination
what are the types of gestalt methods of perception
proximity, similarity, continuity, connectedness, closure
proximity
Grouping things that are close together
similarity
Items that are the same or similar
continuity
perceive continuous patterns
connectedness
When together, look like a single unit
closure
We fill in gaps to form a whole object
what are the 2 main ways we perceive depth
binocular cues, monocular cues
binocular cues
Using 2 eyes
monocular cues
Aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye.
Can give the illusion of depth on flat or two-dimensional surfaces
retinal disparity
he difference between the retinal images of our 2 eyes provides information about depth
convergence
a cue to nearby objects’ distance, enabled by the merging of retinal images by the brain
what are the types of monocular cues
texture gradient, relative size, relative height, interposition, linear perspective, light and shadow, relative clarity
texture gradient
textures are more clear up front and move closer together as get farther away
relative size
Objects that are close appear bigger and objects farther away appear smaller
relative height
Objects closer to us are lower in our field of vision and those farther away appear higher
interposition
When one object blocks another, the one in front is perceived as closer
linear perspective
Parallel lines seem to converge in the distance
light and shadow
closer objects appear brighter; shading produces depth.
relative clarity
Hazy objects perceived as distant
motion perception
apparent movement can be visually perceived even when objects are not actually moving
motion parallax
Objects closer move past faster than objects farther away/in the distance
Stroboscopic Movement
Brain sees rapid series of slightly different images as movement (cartoon flip book)
Phi phenomenon
Lights turning on and off we perceive as movement
what are the types of perceptual constancy
shape, color, size
shape
We perceive form of a familiar object to be the same even when the retinal image changes
color
We perceive familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
size
We perceive certain objects to have an unchanging size (no matter how far we are)
illusion
where you perceive one thing but in reality it is something different. This can be for perception types like size, depth
Ponzo Illusion
an illusion of size in which two objects of equal size are positioned between two converging lines so they appear to be different sizes
Ames room
confuses assumptions of the horizontal and vertical natures of square rooms
cognitive perspective
looks at how we use logic to:
Solve problems
Make decisions
Form judgments
prototype
The best/most typical example of any given concept
Think of it at the first thing that comes to mind
Helps for easy sorting by matching new items to prototypes (aka- how does this best match the most typical example?)
schemas
frameworks for thinking
Patterns of thinking and behavior that people use to interpret the world
assimilation
improving existing knowledge of something thanks to new but congruent information; not changing the schema
accomodation
taking in new information and changing the existing knowledge (schema) to incorporate the new information that contradicts previous thinking
algorithms
Step by step/well-defined procedures or set of rules
Addresses problems by attempting all possible solutions until correct one is found
heuristics
Reduce number of options with “mental shortcuts” to make judgements; experience-based strategy but doesn’t guarantee a correct outcome
insight
“Aha!” moment
The solution just comes to us
creativity
Coming up with new or novel ideas and engaging in divergent thinking (instead of convergent)
convergent thinking
Looking for the “right” answer
What is expected, used to
divergent thinking
Looking for a unique/creative answer
Looking at different approaches
Hindered by functional fixedness
executive functions
Cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking
Frontal lobes
representatives heuristics
Judge the likelihood of things based on if they fit a prototype (using stereotypes) or prior expectations
-Allows you to make snap judgment, which may be erroneous
availability heuristics
Estimate probability of an event based on how easily the information pops in our mind; recalling the first or most vivid example that comes to mind
overconfidence
We tend to overestimate our knowledge
We believe we our answers are correct even if we don’t really know
belief perseverance
We cling to our beliefs even if evidence proves them wrong
We make excuses about the evidence
fixation
Unable to change perspectives; a preoccupation with a single idea, impulse, or aim
mental set
prior experiences that were successful
Leads to sticking to most familiar and ignoring alternatives
functional fixedness
We only think of a typical use for an object
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
framing
process of defining context or issues surrounding a question, problem, or event in a way that serves to influence how context or issues are perceived
Gambler’s Fallacy
the mistaken belief that past events can influence future events that are entirely independent of them in reality
sunk-cost fallacy
our tendency to continue with an endeavor we’ve invested money, effort, or time into- even if current costs outweigh the benefits
memory
the persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval
encoding
the information gets into our brains in a way that allows it to be stored
storage
the information is held in a way that allows it to later be retrieved
Depending on the type of memory, it is stored in different parts of the brain
Rehearsal of information over time in ways that promote meaning helps with memory retention and retrieval
retrieval
reactivating and recalling the information, producing it in a form similar to what was encoded
shallow processing
trying to learn ideas on a superficial level
(only memorizing)
deep processing
elaborative rehearsal with meaningful analysis of ideas and words being learned
automatic encoding
Encoding that is done unconsciously, with incidental information
Makes implicit memories such as procedures
Skips multi-store model steps
effortful encoding
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
Makes explicit memories such as episodic and semantic
mnemonic devices
processes that aid in encoding info into working and long-term memory
spacing effect
when info is encoded impacts memory
massed practice
all at once
distributed practice
spaced out over time
explicit memory
These are facts and experiences that we can consciously know and recall and more easily explain to others
Formed through studying, rehearsing, thinking, processing, and then storing information into long-term
hippocampus and frontal lobes
implicit memory
Memories formed without our awareness and without rehearsal or going through working memory, forego the Multi-Store model
Harder to describe/explain
Cerebellum, basal ganglia
perspective memory
Type of memory related to future actions
sensory memory
processing everything coming in from our senses
Happens within seconds max
If you do not pay attention to this info, will leave our brains
what are the types of sensory memories
ionic and echoic
short term memory
can hold small amounts of information for short periods of time
Will only be able to hold 4-7 pieces of information at a time
Working memory involves the conscious, active processing of both incoming sensory info AND info retrieved from long-term memory
long term memory
This requires encoding
If encoding/rehearsal does not happen, it will be forgotten
Once in Long-Term Memory, it can be theoretically stored indefinitely
Often is based on its relative importance to the individual
Interconnectedness
types of long term memory
episodic, semantic, and procedural
episodic memory
Stories of our own lives and experiences we can recall to tell someone else
semantic memories
Everyday, common knowledge and basic facts, such as 2+2=4 and the names of color
procedura memories
Memories of how to do something such as how to write or ride a bike
memory consolidation
process of moving memories from hippocampus to long-term memory elsewhere in brain
maintenance rehearsal
Memorize information for short term
Uses repetition without contextualization
Often leads to forgetting in a short time
elaborative rehearsal
Helps commit info to long-term memory
Contextualization of info for better storage and retrieval
flashbulb memories
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
reconsolidation
Every time we recall the memory, it may potentially change before being stored again
recall
direct retrieval of facts or information (“fill-in-the-blank”)
Remembering without cues
recognition
correct identification of previously learned material (“multiple choice”)
Relies on cues
retrieval cues
Anchor points to help you retrieve information