Sociology Final

Thinking Sociologically

Beginner’s mind and culture shock

● Microsociology and

macrosociology

● Symbolic interactionism

● Conflict theory

● Structural functionalism

Beginner’s Mind

approaching the world without preconceptions in order to see things in a new way

Culture Shock

the sense of disorientation that you experience on entering a new environment

Behaviors that are typical in one society or culture may seem very strange in another.

Microsociology

examines small-group interactions to see how they impact larger institutions in society

Macrosociology

examines large scale social structures to determine how they impact groups and individuals

Macro

You are a researcher interested in the relationship between cultural values and national suicide rates, your analysis will likely focus on social processes occuring at which level? Micro or Macro sociology

The Macro-Micro Continuum

showcases the interconnectedness between large-scale (macro) social structures and small-scale (micro) individual interactions. It highlights how broad societal forces shape individual behaviors and, in turn, how individual actions contribute to larger social patterns.

Macro level

Stuctural functionalist theorists are primarily concerned with social processes at which of the following levels of analysis? Macro Level or Micro Level

True

True or False: Sociological theories typically address social processes at either the microsociological or macrosociological level

Structural functionalism

Society is viewed as an ordered system of interrelated parts, or structures, which are the social institutions that make up society (family, education, politics, the economy).

• Each of these different structures meets the needs of society by performing specific functions for the whole system (society).

Symbolic Interactionism

Sees interaction and meaning as central to society and assumes that meanings are not inherent, but rather are created through interaction

Basic Tenents:

1. Meaning is derived from social interactions. 2. Individuals act based on the meanings things have for them. 3. Meanings can change through interaction.

Conflict Theory

Sees social conflict as the basis of society and social change

Power and inequality central to _________

Research Methods

Hypothesis

● Spurious correlation

● Target population

● Quantitative and qualitative

research

Hypothesis

The scientific method generally uses a deductive approach—forming a ______ first and then testing to see whether it is accurate.

TRUE

True or False: the scientific method includes a hypothesis Literature review

• Variables

• Operational definitions

Spurious correlation

The scientific method helps to determine and distinguish

between correlation, causation, and spurious causation.

a relationship that seems to exist between two variables, but is actually caused by some external, or intervening,

variable is called _________ (Example: Ice cream sales and drowning rates both go up in summer — but it’s because hot weather causes both, not because ice cream causes drowning!)

Target population

Interviews involve direct, face-to-face contact with respondents.

• They can generate large amounts of qualitative data.

• A researcher identifies the ______ ______ of interest and then selects a sample of people to be interviewed from that population.

SURVEYS ARE QUESTIONNAIRES

THAT ARE ADMINISTERED TO A

SAMPLE OF RESPONDENTS

SELECTED FROM A ________ ________.

SOCIOLOGISTS OFTEN USE

PROBABILITY SAMPLING TO

OBTAIN A SAMPLE THAT

REFLECTS THE CHARACTERISTICS

OF MEMBERS OF THE _______ _______.

Quantitative research

translates the social world into numbers that can be studied mathematically

Qualitative research

uses nonnumerical data like texts, interviews, photos, and recordings to help us understand social life

Culture

Cultural change - cultural leveling,

cultural diffusion, cultural

imperialism

Cultural Change

Cultures usually change slowly and incrementally,

though change can also happen in rapid and dramatic

ways. At times, a subculture can influence the mainstream and become part of dominant culture, or something that is

dominant can change to a counterculture.

Cultural Leveling

the process by which cultures that were once unique and distinct become increasingly similar. This occurs when cultures become more similar to one another due to increased interaction, such as globalization. It often results from trade, migration, mass media, and technology. An example is the widespread presence of fast-food chains like McDonald's in different countries, leading to a more homogenized global culture.

Cultural Diffusion

The dissemination of material and nonmaterial culture (tools

and technology, beliefs and behavior) from one group to another / when different groups share their material and nonmaterial culture with each other, a process called ____ _____.

Example: eating sushi in the U.S. even though it originated in Japan.

Cultural Imperialism

the imposition of one culture’s beliefs and practices on another culture through media and consumer products rather than by military force.

This occurs when a dominant culture imposes its values, practices, and customs on another culture, often through economic or political influence. This can sometimes lead to the erosion of local traditions. For instance, Western entertainment industries shaping media consumption worldwide can be seen as a form of cultural imperialism.

The Self

● Nature vs. nurture debate

● The Thomas Theorem

● Roles (role strain; role conflict; role

exit)

● Emotions and personality

● Feeling rules

● Cooley’s looking-glass self

nature vs. nurture debate

Are we the people that we are because of our genetics

or our socialization? This debate asks which factor determines individual behaviors and traits.

Ultimately, both sides play a role in making

us the people that we are.

Theories of the Self

The self is our experience of a

personal identity that is separate

and different from all other people.

Sociologists believe the self is

created and modified through

interaction with others over the

course of one’s life.

W. I. Thomas; Thomas Theorem (Theories of the Self)

_____ stated that “if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.” This is now called the ______. Because we encounter ambiguous situations every day, many meanings are possible. The way we define each situation, then, becomes its reality.

Roles

_____ are the set of behaviors expected from a particular status. Sociologists such as Erving Goffman (1956) and Ralph Turner (1978) deliberately used the theatrical analogy to capture how roles provide a kind of script, outlining what we are expected to say and do as a result of our position in the social structure.

[Role] Conflict

Role ______ occurs when the roles

associated with one status clash with the

roles associated with a different status (a situation in which two or more roles have contradictory expectations).

Example: Duckworth’s occupational role as a senator was seemingly incompatible with her familial role as a mother.

[Role] Strain

Role ____ occurs when roles associated with a SINGLE status clash.

Role Exit

Role strain or role conflict processes may lead to

role ___, the process of leaving a role that we will no longer occupy

Emotions

Though we tend to believe that our ______

are highly personal and individual, there are

social patterns in our emotional responses.

Socially Constructed

Emotional responses are ______ ______, meaning they are influenced by social and cultural context.

Feeling Rules

Norms regarding acceptable or desirable feelings in a given situation are called ____ _____.

Examples: feeling happy at a wedding, showing grief at a

funeral, maintaining a positive attitude at work, or suppressing anger in a professional setting

____ _____ are social facts. You can really notice feeling

rules when you deviate from them such as showing sadness or anger at a wedding.

Emotion work

_____ _____ refers to the process of evoking,

suppressing, or managing feelings to create a public

display of emotion.

Example of Emotion Work

Anxiety is an emotion characterized by feelings of

tension, worried thoughts, and physical changes like increased blood pressure.

Larger social narratives often fuel anxiety

– Social construction of anxiety and “moral

panics”

• Individuals’ emotions linked to social

conditions

– Ex: Unemployment à anxiety and depression

South Africa constructed as

especially and uniquely dangerous à

increased anxieties and fears

– Ex: “Plasma gang” urban legend and

moral panic in Joburg

Looking-glass Self

This refers to the notion that the self develops

through our perception of others’ evaluations and appraisals of us.

Charles Cooley

_____ _______ believed that the sense of self depends on seeing oneself reflected in interactions with others.

The looking-glass self refers to the notion that the self develops through our perception of others’ evaluations and appraisals of us.

Deviance (Topic)

Defining deviance

● Deviance across cultures

Deviance

a behavior, trait, or belief that departs from a norm

and generates a negative reaction in a particular group. Serves as a function of our society

Defining something as such requires us to examine the group norms and how the group reacts to the behavior.

group norms; group reacts

Defining something as deviant requires us to

examine the _____ _____ and how the _____ _____to the

behavior.

Deviance across Cultures: Punishment

What is considered deviant or criminal and how deviance, including crime, is punished varies across cultures and over time.

• In the United States, serious crimes are now punished by imprisonment, but historically, corporal (physical) punishment was the rule.

• In other cultures, other types of punishments

may be used, including:

• Shunning

• Banishment

Social Class

U.S. social class ladder

● Theories of social class and

symbolic interactionism

● Social mobility (intergenerational,

intragenerational, horizontal,

vertical)

● Just-world hypothesis

● Inequality and the American

Dream

The U.S. Social Class Ladder

Social Class

A grouping of people within a society who share a similar

social status, typically determined by factors like income, occupation, education, and wealth. Sociologists sometimes refer to social class as socioeconomic status (SES)

Upper Class

Consists of the wealthiest people in a

class system

• Possesses most of the wealth of the

country

• Makes up 1% of the U.S. population

The upper-middle class

Includes professionals and managers

• Makes up about 14% of the U.S.

population

The middle class

• Includes white collar workers

• Has a broad range of incomes

• Makes up about 30% of the U.S. population

The working (lower-middle) class

Includes blue collar, or service industry, workers

• Members less likely to have college degrees

• Makes up about 30% of the U.S. population

The working poor

Members likely work manual and service jobs and seasonal employment

• Makes up about 13% of the U.S. population

The under class

Members likely to be employed only part time or unemployed

• Makes up about 12% of the U.S. population

Karl Marx [Theories of Social Class: Conflict

Theory]

• ____ _____ believed that there were two main social classes

in capitalist societies.

• Capitalists (or the bourgeoisie) owned the means of

production.

• Workers (or the proletariat) sold their labor for wages.

• Marx believed that the classes would remain divided and

social inequality would grow.

Max Weber [Theories of Social Class: Weberian

Theory]

• ____ ____ offered a similar model that also included

cultural factors.

• He argued that class status was made of three

components.

• Wealth (or privilege) is a measure of net worth that

includes income, property, and other assets.

• Power is the ability to make changes in the system.

• Prestige is the social honor people are given because of

their membership in well-regarded social groups.

Theories of Social Class: Structural

Functionalism

This suggests that the system of

stratification that has emerged is functional to society in

many ways.

• Certain roles are more important for the functioning of

society and these roles may be more difficult to fill, so

more incentive is needed.

• Greater rewards are necessary for work that requires

more training or “skill.”

Theories of Social Class: Social Reproduction

More recently, Pierre Bourdieu attempted to explain _____ _____

• _____ _____: the tendency for social-class status to be passed down from one generation to the next

Theories of Social Class: Cultural Capital

• According to Bourdieu, social-class status is passed down

because each generation acquires ____ ______ (tastes,

habits, expectations, skills, knowledge, etc.), which helps

people gain advantages in society.

• This _____ ______ either helps or hinders people as they

become adults.

Theories of Social Class: Symbolic

Interactionism

______ _______ examine the way in which we use

status differences to categorize ourselves and others.

• As Erving Goffman pointed out, our clothing, speech,

gestures, possessions, friends, activities, and so on provide

information about our socioeconomic status.

Social mobility

the movement of individuals or groups within the hierarchical system of social classes.

• A closed system is one in which there is

very little opportunity to move from one

class to another.

• An open system is one with ample

opportunity to move from one class to

another.

Intergenerational mobility

is the movement between social classes that occurs from one generation to the next.

Intragenerational mobility

is the movement between social classes that occurs over the course of an individual’s lifetime.

Horizontal social mobility

the occupational movement of individuals or groups within a social class.

Vertical Social Mobility

When a person or group moves up or down the social ladder — meaning they gain or lose status, wealth, or power.

Upward mobility = moving higher in social class (like getting a better-paying job, more education, etc.)

Downward mobility = moving lower (like losing a job, going into debt, etc.)

Just-World Hypothesis

Argument that people have a deep need to

see the world as orderly, predictable, and fair, which creates a

tendency to view victims of social injustice as deserving of their fates.

The American Dream

This is the ideology that anyone can achieve material success if

they work hard enough.

• This ideology explains and justifies economic inequality in our

social system.

• It has been criticized for legitimizing stratification by implying

that everyone has the same opportunity to get ahead.

Inequality

The unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges within a society, often leading to disparities in wealth, power, and social status.

Race and Ethnicity

The social construction of race

● Institutional racism

Social Construction

Sociologists see race as a _____ ____ because

• Race isn’t based on biology (for instance, we cannot test DNA to determine race)

• Racial categories have changed over time.

• Racial categories are not universal.

• The idea of race and racial difference was created to facilitate social stratification

Institutional racism

systematic discrimination carried out by

social institutions (political, economic, educational, etc.) that

affects all members of a group who come into contact with it.

• Usually no one person can be held accountable

Structural racism builds upon the concept of _____ ______ by considering how multiple social institutions are interrelated in producing racial inequality

• Ex: the “school-to-prison pipeline”

Gender

● Social construction of gender

● Agents of socialization and gender

● Gender role socialization

● Feminization of poverty

What does it mean to say that gender is a “social construct?”

Most sociologists use a constructionist approach and view gender s a social construct. Created and modified through interactions with others

Reject ideas of innate identities or restrictive categories of gender

Different classification systems across societies

Gender role socialization

________ is the lifelong

process of learning to be masculine or

feminine, primarily through four major

agents of socialization

families, schools, peers, and [the] media.

The four major agents of socialization are:

Families

are usually the primary source of socialization and greatly

impact gender role socialization.

Social learning theory suggests that

babies and children learn behaviors

and meanings through social

interaction and internalize the

expectations of those around them.

Socialization & Gender: Schools

_____ also socialize children into gender roles that accord with their sex. For instance, research shows that teachers treat boys and girls differently. This may teach children that there are different expectations of them, based on their sex and/or gender.

Socialization & Gender: Peers

In Western societies, ___ groups are an important agent of

socialization.

Teens are frequently rewarded by their ______ when they conform to

gender norms and stigmatized by their _____ when they do not.

Socialization & Gender: Media

There is no question that sex-role behavior

is often portrayed in a highly stereotypical

manner in all forms of the _____: television,

movies, magazines, books, video games,

and so on.

Feminization of Poverty

refers to the economic trend that

women are more likely than men to live in poverty, due in part to

the gendered gap in wages, the higher proportion of single

mothers compared to single fathers, and the increasing cost of

child care.

The Economy and Work

● Information Revolution

● Service work; knowledge work

● Resistance strategies

● Quiet quitting

● Gig economy

Information Revolution

This is post Industrial Revolution; refers to the recent social revolution made possible by the development of the microchip in the 1970s, which brought about vast improvements in the ability to manage information.

Service Work

In a postindustrial economy, many workers do

______ ______, which often involves direct contact with

clients, customers, patients, or students (helping people; ex: hospitality, healthcare, barista, nurse, etc.)

Knowledge Work

Other workers in the postindustrial economy are

involved in _____ _____, which involves working with information (using expertise and information; ex: software engineer)

Resistance Strategies: How Workers Cope

Individuals and groups cope with their working conditions in a variety of ways termed _____ ______

• ______ _______ are ways in which workers express discontent with their working conditions and try to reclaim control of the conditions of their labor.

Individual Resistance

Type of resistance that can include using work time to surf the Web, sabotaging an assembly line, and personalizing a

workspace with photos.

Collective Resistance

Type of resistance that can include membership in a union (an association of workers who bargain collectively for increased wages and benefits and better working

conditions).

“Quiet Quitting”

There is a trend toward ____ ____ -- the idea spreading virally on social media that millions of people are not going above and beyond at work and just meeting their job description

The Gig Economy

This involves the exchange of labor for money

between individuals or companies via digital platforms that

actively facilitate matching between providers and customers, on a short-term and payment-by-task basis

• Think Uber, DoorDash, etc.

• Sometimes referred to as the platform economy

Technology: Social media algorithms

These are technical means of sorting posts based on relevancy instead of publish time

• Prioritize which content a user sees first according to the likelihood that they will actually engage with such

content.

• Some concerns about social media’s role in creating and reinforcing growing political polarization

• Can become an “echo chamber” – reinforce existing beliefs

Constructs

Our bodies are social objects—it is important to understand the role that health (and illness) plays in our lives as social beings. Health (and illness) are social

_______. What it means to be healthy or sick is determined by society! Varies over time and place

Health

● Social construction of health and illness

● Medicalization

● Social inequality, health, and illness

● Complementary and Alternative Medicine

● Food desert

Medicalization

the process

whereby an issue that used to

be seen as a personal problem

is redefined as a medical issue.

• or vice versa

(“demedicalization”)

Socioeconomic status

impacts people’s ability to

access better heath care, tests, and medications, and also

to afford better nutrition. Higher-SES individuals often live

LONGER and feel BETTER than lower-SES individuals.

Racial inequalities

_____ ______ in healthcare are partly due to socioeconomic status,

disparities are linked to systemic racism and discrimination,

the effect of which is known as “weathering.”

Gender inequalities in healthcare

While women live longer than men,

they also are more likely to die from heart attacks and to

develop anxiety and mood disorders.

Issues in Medicine and Health Care:

Complementary Medicine

treatments, practices, or products that can be used in conjunction with conventional Western medicine

Issues in Medicine and Health Care: Alternative

Medicine

treatments, practices, or products that can be used instead of conventional Western medicine

Food desert

a community in which the residents have little or no

access to fresh, affordable, healthy foods, usually located in a densely populated urban area

The Environment

• Environmental sociology

● Sociological definition of the “environment”

● Climate change

● Grassroots environmentalism

● Environmental justice; climate justice

sociology of technology

A research field that examines the relationship between technology and society

Environment

refers to the natural world, the human-made

environment, and the interaction between the two.

Sociologists are interested in how human populations

impact the natural world; especially as environmental

degradation has increasingly become a social problem.

Degradation : the deterioration of the

environment through depletion of resources such as air,

water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems and the

extinction of wildlife