Midterm 1: Units 1-9

cyanobactera

first photosynthetic organism living in aquatic conditions and producing oxygen; 2.8bya

ancestral algae

divided into two clades giving rise to different land plants; 1.6bya

land plant

nonvascular and capable of living out of water; 480mya

conifers

evolved after land animals; first gymnosperm living in moist environments; 320mya

ferns

reproduce via spores, do not have seeds or flowers; 250mya

angiosperm

reproduce via flowering and fruit, more advanced reproduction allows them to live in more areas than their coniferous counterparts; 125mya

radiocarbon dating

compares ratio of C-14 to C-12 via half life of the radioactive isotope

evolution

change in populations over very long periods of time. caused by genetic mutations that become favored depending on reproductive and survival benefits

natural selection

based on the idea of survival of the fittest, happens to individuals and can eventually cause speciation

taxonomy

classifying and naming organisms

phylogeny

evolutionary history of organisms

domains

three; largest taxonomic category

kingdoms

six; generalized groups of bacteria, archaea, and eukarya

plant characteristics

photosynthetic, stores sugar and starch, cellulose cell wall, anchorage / support / photosynthetic organs, diploid and haploid life cycle stages

alge lacks

specialized structures of anchorage, support, and photosynthesis

binomial nomenclature

linnaeus, Genus species, can include subspecies, varieties and cultivars

cladogram

demonstrates physical relationships between organisms

convergent evolution

unrelated species develop similar features due to being in similar environments

phylogenetics

study of evolutionary relationships based on genetics rather than physical traits; technically a theory because evolution is a theory

carbon

contains 6 protons, capable of creating 4 covalent bonds, basis for organic molecules, one of the essential elements

methane

simplest organic molecule; primary component of natural gas as a hydrocarbon

hydrocarbons

only C-H bonds, nonpolar, hydrophobic, store large amounts of energy, uncommon by themselves and break down to provide energy

SCHNOP

six essential elements (sulfur, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus) composing 99% of the weight of organic matter. major parts of macromolecules as functional groups

mineral deficiency

soil lacks a nutrient, water, or proper pH level

mineral toxicity

typically happens with heavy metals such as chromium, nickel and cobalt. plants can adapt to the excess nutrients via natural selection

functional groups

attach to CH backbones and contribute to a change in shape of molecules and therefore alter their functions

metabolism

primary and secondary metabolites, chemical reactions necessary for maintaining life

lipids

long HC chains that can be saturated or unsaturated, hydrophobic and nonpolar, very important to cell membranes, energy storage, and information transfer

lipid examples

almonds, canola, peanut, sunflower, olive

steroid

add fluidity to cell and used as signal molecule in hormones and cholesterol

carbohydrates

polymers of sugar, energy and structural support, carbonyl and hydroxyl groups, starch and cellulose

carbohydrate examples

wheat, rice, sweet potato, sugarcane, corn

proteins

polymers of 20 amino acids, arise from RNA, composed of amino and carboxyl group, four structures, do everything but store energy

protein examples

beans, lentils, peas

nucleic acid

transmit genetic information in the form of DNA and RNA via a phosphate, pentose, and nitrogenous base. nucleotide monomers linked via phosphodiester linkages

#1 and its function

nuclear membrane, double membrane involved in the endomembrane system, contains bound ribosomes

#2 and its function

dictyosome, endomembrane system, processes proteins and lipids, forming face receives vesicles from RER and maturing face releases vesicles to plasma membrane

#3 and its function

cytoplasm; refers to the contents of the cell excluding the membrane and vacuole. liquid portion is cytosol, connected to cytoplasms of other cells via plasmodesmata, surrounds organelles and cytoskeleton

#4 and its function

smooth endoplasmic reticulum; responsible for lipid synthetisis as membrane assembly, package material in phospholipid vesicle membranes

#5 and its function

chloroplast; photosynthetic organelle transforming CO2 and H2O into oxygen and glucose, double membraned and contain chlorophyll within thylakoids of grana and lumen surrounded by stroma

#6 and its function

plasmodesmata; membrane bound tubes connecting cytoplasms, acting as transport pathway that allows water and small solutes to pass through

#9 and its function

cell membrane; composed of phospholipid bilayer and is semipermeable, serves as boundary between protoplast and envrionment, consist of integral and peripheral proteins

#10 and its function

middle lamella; intercellular cement composed of pectin

#11 and its function

vacuole; bound by single-membrane tonoplast, stores pigments, waste, recycles organelles and is responsible for turgor and cell expansion / shrinkage

#13 and its function

cell wall; composed of cellulose microfibrils, protect cells, maintain shape, prevent excess water uptake, site of some metabolic reactions, primary and secondary cell walls

#14 and its function

actin filaments; helical protein filament part of cytoskeleton, involved in cytoplasmic streaming and powered by myosin motor proteins

#15 and its function

microtubule; composed of alpha and beta protein dimers that create a hollow tube and the network. Move chromosome via spindle fibers, responsible for cell motility, compression resistance, and movement of organelles

#17 and its function

mitochondria; generates ATP via cellular respiration and enclosed in two phospholipid bilayer membranes: smooth outer membrane and folded inner cristae. Inside is the mitochondrial matrix consisting of enzymes, DNA and ribosomes

#18 and its function

rough er; protein production and transport

#21 and its function

nucleolus; produces ribosomes by synthesizing rRNA and dictates stress responses

primary cell wall

rigid, outermost layer composed of cellulose

secondary cell wall

rigid inner layer only in some types of cells after elongation stops, usually contains lignin

cellulose microfibrils

wrap around protoplast to resist expansion

lignin

in woody tissue, toughens cell wall

transport protein

allow hydrophilic molecules and ions to pass

channel proteins

opening allowing certain molecules to diffuse through

carrier proteins

dependent on ATP, change shape to transport across membrane

thylakoids

contain chlorophyll within the chloroplast

grana

stacks of thylakoids

lumen

inside of thylakoids

stroma

fluid surrounding thylakoids containing DNA, enzymes and ribosomes

semiautonomous

contain their own DNA, can replicate independently to some degree but still reliant on nucleus

etioplasts

colorless chloroplasts

chromoplast

store bright pigments in fruit and flowers

amyloplast

store starch

elaioplast

synthesize oil

microfilaments

two stands of actin responsible for organelle movement and cytoplasmic streaming

forming face

part of the dictyosome that receives vesicles from the rough endoplasmic reticulum

maturing face

part of the dictyosome that releases vesicles to the plasma membrane

meristem

region of active cell division

G1 phase

cell grows and carries out normal metabolic activity

S Phase

DNA replication

G2 phase

cell continues to grow and prepare for division

genome

complete set of nuclear genetic material in a cell

chromosome

single DNA molecule wrapped around histone proteins

chromatide

one of two identical sister chromotids connected by a centromere

prophase

chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form and attach to kinetochore proteins, nuclear envelope dissolve, chromatids join at centromere

metaphase

chromosomes align at the plate with help of spindle fibers

anaphase

microtubules shorten and pull chromatids to opposite poles, cell elongates

telophase

nuclear envelopes form, chromosomes decondense, microtubules break down, cell plate forms

cytokinesis

cytoplasm divides

phragmoplast

microtubules send dictyosome vesicles to forming cell plate

totipotency

cells can differentiate into any other type of cell

primary meristems

responsible for primary growth (growth in an apical-basal pattern of length)

secondary meristems

responsible for secondary growth (growth in a radial pattern of concentrically arranged tissue systems by increasing diameter)

tissues

simple and complex

tissue systems

ground, vascular, and dermal

organs

leaves, stems, roots, floral parts

ground tissue system

make up the bulk of the plant body, fills the space between vascular and dermal systems

vascular tissue system

conductive xylem and phloem tissue

dermal tissue system

epidermal tissue

parenchyma

thin primary cell walls, living at maturity, photosynthesis / storage / secretion

collenchyma

primary cell walls with uneven thickness, non-lignified and provide flexible support

sclerenchyma

primary and lignified secondary cell wall, dead at maturity

scleried

circular bundles of sclerenchyma

fiber

elongated strands of sclerenchyma

xylem

conducts water

phloem

conducts food