Biochemical Energy Production

metabolism

is the sum total of all the biochemical reactions that take place in a living organism

protein synthesis, DNA repli-cation, RNA transcription, and membrane transport

energy-demanding processes such as

anabolism, catabolism

two subtypes of metabolic reactions

catabolism

is all metabolic reactions in which large biochemical molecules are broken down two smaller ones; release energy

catabolic reactions

oxidation glucose

anabolism

is all metabolic reactions in which small biochemical molecules are joined together to form larger ones

anabolic reaction

requires energy; protein synthesis

metabolic pathway

is a series of consecutive biochemical reactions used to convert a starting material into an end product

linear

in which a series of reactions generates a final product,

cyclic

series of reaction regenerate a the first reactant

anabolic

synthesis of a polysaccharide from monosaccharides

catabolic

hydrolysis of a pentasaccharide to monosaccharides

anabolic

Formation of a nucleotide from phosphate, nitrogenous base, and pentose sugar

catabolic

hydrolysis of triacylglycerols to form fatty acids

prokaryotic, eukaryotic

two types of cells

prokaryotic cells

have no nucleus and are found only in bacteria.

nucleoid

DNA that governs the reproduction of prokaryotic cells is usually a single circular molecule found near the center of the cell in a region

eukaryotic cell

is a cell in which the DNA is found in a membrane-enclosed nucleus

cytoplasm

the water-based material of a eukaryotic cell that lies between the nucleus and the outer membrane of the cell.

organelle

is a minute structure within the cytoplasm of a cell that carries out a specific cellular function

Cytosol

water based fluid part of the cytoplasm of a cell

ribosomes, lysosomes, mitochondria

important types of organelles

lysosome

is an organelle that contains hydrolytic enzymes needed for cellular rebuilding, repair, and degradation

mitochondrion

is an organelle that is responsible for the generation of most of the energy for a cell

outer membrane and a multifolded inner membrane

mitochondria are sausage-shaped organelles containing both an

outer membrane

which is about 50% lipid and 50% protein, is freely permeable to small molecules

inner membrane

which is about 20% lipid and 80% protein, is highly impermeable to most substances.

a thread

mitos

chondrion

granule

matrix

an interior region

intermembrane space

region between the inner and outer membranes, called the

cristae

folds of the inner membrane that protrude into the matrix are called

ATP synthase complexes

1962, of small spherical knobs attached to the cristae called

outer membrane

more permeable of the two mitochondrial membranes

inner membrane

mitochondrial membrane that has cristae

inner membrane

mitochondrial membrane that determines the size of the matrix

inner membrane

mitochondrial membrane than is interior of to the intermembrane space

inner membrane

highly folded

inner membrane

higher protein content

outer membrane

exterior to the intermembrane space

inner membrane

ATP synthase complexes are associated

number

ADP and ATP differ structurally from AMP only in the _____ of phosphate groups present.

phosphoanhydride bonds

phosphate-phosphate bonds are

phosphoester bond

phosphate- ribose home

anhydride

word present in the term phosphoanhydride refers to the production of (loss of) a molecule of water when two phosphate groups bond to each other

phosphoanhydride bond

is the chemical bond formed when two phosphate groups react with each other and a water molecule is produced

phosphate groups (Pi, inorganic phosphate)

ATP and ADP molecules readily undergo hydrolysis reactions in which ____are released.

HPO4 (-2)

the form in which phosphate ion exists in solution at physiological pH

very reactive

phosphoanhydride bonds in ATP and ADP are ____bonds that require less energy than normal to break.

strained bonds

the basis for the net energy production that accompanies hydrolysis

bond strain

arises from greater-than-normal electron-electron repulsive forces within a molecule, typically at specific locations where atoms or groups are forced into positions that increase their repulsion.

phosphate groups

In ATP and ADP, ___are highly electronegative, with oxygen atoms bearing significant negative charges.

ATP

functions as both a source of energy and a phosphate group in cellular reactions

glucose to glucose-6-phosphate

typical cellular reaction in which ATP functions as both a source of a phosphate group and a source of energy is the conversion of

uridine triphosphate (UTP)

is involved in carbohydrate metabolism

guanosine triphosphate (GTP)

participates in protein and carbohydrate metabolism

cytidine triphosphate (CTP)

is involved in lipid metabolism

flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

is a coenzyme required in numerous metabolic redox reactions

three subunit model, six subunit model

FAD can be viewed in two ways

flavin, ribitol, ADP

three subunit viewpoints

Flavin, ribitol, phosphate, adenine, ribose, and another phosphate group.

six subunit viewpoint

flavin

active site for redox reaction

ADP

activating factor, activated riboflavin

ribitol

reduced form of ribose

oxidized form (FAD)

reduced form (FADH2)

Flavin adenine dinucleotide has two forms an

NAD+ and that for the reduced form is NADH

notation for the oxidized form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is

riboflavin

flavin and ribitol subunits together form ____, a B vitamin, making FAD one of the active forms of riboflavin

nicotinamide

B vitamin present in NAD+/NADH is

nicotinamide, ribose, ADP

a three subunit structure of NAD+

2-Aminoethanethiol, pantothenic acid, and phosphorylated ADP

three sub unit of Coenzyme A (CoA- SH)

thioester bond

Acetyl CoA is formed when an acetyl group binds to CoA-SH through a

sulfhydryl group (-SH group)

active portion of coenzyme A

CoA-SH

is used for coenzyme A to emphasize its active sulfhydryl group.

coenzyme A

acetyl carrier

acetyl group

is the portion of an acetic acid molecule (CH3-CООН) that remains after the —OH group is removed from the carboxyl carbon atom.

thioester bond

An acetyl group bonds to CoA-SH through a ___ to give acetyl CoA

FADH2

intermediate produced when FAD is reduced

FAD

intermediate produced when FADH, is oxidized

AMP

intermediate produced when ATP loses two phosphoryl groups

coenzyme A

intermediate produced when acetyl-S-CoA transfers an acetyl group

NAD+

intermediate produced when NADH is oxidized

NADH

The intermediate produced when NAD is reduced

ADP

The intermediate produced when a phosphate group is added to AMP

Acetyl-S-CoA

The intermediate produced when CoA-S-H bonds to an acetyl group

succinic acid, glucaric acid

two simple carboxylic acids

succinic acid

the four-carbon dicarboxylic acid

glutaric acid

the five-carbon dicarboxylic acid

hydroxy, keto, unsaturated derivative

succinic acid derivatives

malic, malate

hydroxy derivative

oxaloacetate acid, oxaloacetate

keto derivative

fumarate, fumarate

unsaturated derivative

keto, carboxyhydroxy derivative

glucaric acid derivatives

a-ketoglutarate, a- ketoglutarate

keto derivative under glucaric

citric acid, citrate

carboxyhydroxy dedivative

-2

three carboxylate ions derived from succinic acid all contain four carbon atoms, and all have a charge of

cis-trans isomerism

The positioning of the double bond in the fumarate ion is such that _____ is possible

glutaric acid

The two carboxylate ions derived from __ differ in both the number of carbon atoms present and ion charge

a-ketoglutarate ion

is a five-carbon species that possesses a - 2 charge

citrate ion

is a six-carbon species that possesses a - 3 charge

high-energy compound

is a compound that has a greater free energy of hydrolysis than that of a typical compound