The ULTIMATE Human Growth & Development (HGD) CLEP Study Guide

Discontinuity or Stage Theories (types of theories)

-Development progresses through a series of stages

-Each stage involves a specific task

-Once task is achieved, individual moves to next stage

-Changes are qualitative

Continuity Theory (type of theory)

-Development/change is a matter of small steps

-Change is NOT qualitative

Universality theorists believe...

there are universals to development that occur across all cultures/time-periods

Context-specific theorists believe...

context (cultural/social) influences development

Cognitive-Developmental Theory

-Coined by Jean Piaget

-Argues that cognitive abilities develop as one matures physiologically

-It is a stage theory (4-stages)

~Sensorimotor stage (0-2yo)

~Preoperational stage (2-7yo)

~Concrete operations (7-12yo)

~Formal operations (12-15yo)

Stage 1 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory?

-Sensorimotor (0-2yo)

-Characterized by child learning the difference between themselves and their environment

Stage 2 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory?

-Preoperational (2-7yo)

-Characterized by: egocentrism, rigid thought, semi-logical reasoning, limited social cognition

Stage 3 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory?

-Concrete Operations (7-12yo)

-Characterized by: individual can consider other viewpoints, can perform transformations (reversibility, inversion, reciprocity, conservation), can group items into categories, make inferences about reality, inductive reasoning (generalizing), increased quantitative skills

Stage 4 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory?

-Formal Operations (12-15yo)

-Characterized by: higher ordered and critical thinking, logical, abstract, hypothetical capabilities, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, able to anticipate verbal cues, can perform an experiment (hypothesis, isolate variables, cause-and-effect)

Jean Piaget and "Adaptation" (learning)

Individual encounters a new stimulus -> disequilibrium of individual -> accommodation (adjusting prior knowledge) -> assimilation (putting new and old information together) -> understanding that which is new... (learning...)

Learning Theorists believe...

-that environment influences learning (nurture), and developmental change is the product of learning

-ie. Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura

Classical Conditioning

-Ivan Pavlov

-"Learning takes place when reflexive behavior (salivating) comes under control of a novel stimulus (bell) in the environment"

Unconditioned Stimulus?

Unconditioned Response?

Conditioned Stimulus?

Conditioned Response?

-stimulus that automatically elicits a response (steak)

-automatic response to UCS (salivating)

-paired with UCS to generate response (steak & bell)

-response that results from CS (salivating at bell)

IRT Classical Conditioning...

"Generalization"?

"Discrimination"?

"Extinction"?

-CR is elicited by stimuli similar to CS (alike to bell)

-CR is only elicited by CS (bell)

-Unlearning of the CR

Classical Conditioning of Emotional Responses

-John Watson

-Through experience we learn to associate new environmental stimuli with reflexive emotional responses

-Conditioned fear into Little Albert using a loud noise (UCS) and a rate (CS); later, little albert would be fearful of just rat...

Operant Conditioning

-B.F. Skinner

-Learning is controlled by stimuli and our interaction with it, but our behavior is influenced by consequences (reward, punishment)

-Positive reinforcement = rewarding behavior (candy)

-Negative reinforcement = removing an undesirable consequence to promote good behavior (letting a kid out of timeout if they agree to not be disruptive)

Social Cognitive Theory

-Albert Bandura

-Changes in behavior don't result from just conditioning, but also from observing and modeling

Psychodynamic Theorists believe what about personality?

-it is unconscious and shaped by early experiences

Freud's Theory of Personality

-Sigmund Freud

-Three main points:

~1) early experiences determine adult personality

~2) unconscious mental processes guide behavior

~3) conflict causes most behavior

-Each adult personality consists of:

~id - pleasure-oriented, animalistic

~ego - deals with reality, executive branch

~superego - concerned with morality

-Behavior is outcome of conflict between id, ego, and superego

-Most of our personality is bottom of iceberg (unconscious)

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development Theory

-Development is centered around an erogenous zone that changes with age

-Frustrations or under-/over-indulgence in any one zone can result in fixation, which affects personality/behavior

-Stage 1 (0-1yo) - oral

-Stage 2 (1-3yo) - anus

-Stage 3 (3-6yo) - genitals

-Stage 4 (6-12yo) - latency (none)

-Stage 5 (puberty+) - genitals

Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development

-Personality develops over the entire lifespan as a result of social-emotional tasks

-In Childhood

~Trust vs mistrust (birth-1yo)

~Autonomy vs shame & doubt (1-3yo)

~Initiative vs guilt (3-6yo)

~Industry vs inferiority (6-11yo)

-In Adolescence

~Identity vs role confusion

-In Young Adulthood

~Intimacy vs isolation

-In Adulthood

~Generativity vs stagnation

-In Late Adulthood

~Ego integrity vs despair

Socio-Cultural Theorists believe...

Environment (society & culture) influence child, and child influences environment

Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development

-Lev Vygotsky

-There are social influences on development

-Much of cognitive development due to interactions

-Older children & adults = "scaffolding"

-Lowest level of performance occurs when child works alone, highest when with knowledgeable elder

-"Zone of Proximal Development" - range of a child's competence from what they can do alone to what they can do with an advanced thinker

Ecological Systems Theory

-Urie Bronfenbrenner

-Environment influences child, child influences environment

-Development takes place is context of several systems

~Microsystem - immediate environment

~Mesosystem - interrelationships of microsystems

~Exosystem - what significant others of child experience, but child does not

~Macrosystem - culture/society

Evolutionary Theory

-Charles Darwin

-There are never enough resources --> there are variations in traits/abilities --> some traits are better suited for a particular environment --> those individuals survive and reproduce

-^^this is "natural selection"

Steps of The Scientific Method

1) Define the problem

2) Propose a hypothesis

3) Design/conduct research

4) Analyze date

5) Communicate the results

Independent Variable?

Dependent Variable?

-the manipulated variable (amount of water)

-the observed variable (growth)

Random Assignment Experiment

-subjects are randomly assigned to the control group or the experimental group

Quasi-Experiment

-participants are not randomly assigned to control group or experimental group...

Subject Bias

-behavior of subject changes because they know they're being studied

Observer Bias

-expectations of researcher/observer influences what is measured or recorded

Double-Blind Experiment

-neither subject or researcher know who is assigned to which group (control or experimental)

Single-Subject Research

-one subject being evaluated, IV changes, new behavior of subject is compared to prior behavior

Correlational Research

-measures two or more variables to see if they are related

-positive correlation - both variables move same direction

-negative correlation - variables move in opposite direction

-Correlation Coefficient represents strength of relationship (0-1)

Descriptive/Observational Research

-used to obtain records of behavior

-simply JUST observing and recording

-Case-Study - on one subject

-Survey - on multiple subjects

Cross-Sectional Research Design

-looks at differences between different aged groups/subjects at one point in time

Longitudinal Research Design

-measures same variable on same group over time

Sequential Research Design

-combines cross-sectional and longitudinal

-At time 1: two (or more) different aged groups have memory tested

-At time 2 (10 years later): participants from time 1 return to be tested and a new group is added that is the same age as the youngest group was at time one

-At time 3 (10 years later): all participants return again and replacement groups are added again

How many pairs of chromosomes?

-23 pairs (22 autosomal, 1 sex)

Conception

-when sperm penetrates and fertilizes the ovum (egg); the new formed cell is a "zygote"

Genotype

-the traits a person carries in their genetic code

Phenotype

-the traits a person SHOWS (ie. hair & eye color)

Genetic Counseling

-used to help couples make decisions about childbearing based on likelihood of passing genetic-diseases to offspring

Recessive-Gene Diseases (gg):

Dominant-Gene Diseases (Gg or GG):

-Sickle-cell, Cystic Fibrosis, Phenylketonuria (PKU), Tay-Sachs

-Huntington's

Sex-Linked Genetic Diseases:

Why men more prone to some?

-Color Blindness (recessive gene on X-chromosome), Hemophilia (recessive gene on X-chromosome)

-Men are more prone to recessive-gene diseases on X-chromosome because they are 'XY'

Genetic Mutation

-abnormal structural change to genetic material

-can be spontaneous or due to toxins

Chromosomal Abnormality Related Diseases:

Occurs when?

Types?

-occurs when child inherits too many or too few chromosomes

-Down Syndrome (trisomy-21), Turner Syndrome (female that is 'X0'), Klinefelter's Syndrome (man that is 'XXY')

Polygenetic Traits

-traits that are due to multiple genes working together, not just one...

Pituitary Gland

-"Master Gland"

-Functions: causes other glands to secrete hormones, secretes GH

-Is controlled by the hypothalamus (HT->PG->blood)

Thyroid Gland

-controls growth and nervous system development

-secretes thyroxin (absence of this = retardation)

-if thyroxin deficiency happens after brain growth - there is stunted physical growth but no retardation

Androgens

-sex hormones that control sex organ growth, sex organ function, and development of secondary sexual characteristics

At what week of fetal development does gene on Y chromosome of XY trigger development of male reproductive organs?

-7-8th week

-testes come first, which secrete testosterone and inhibit development of female organs

When do external genitalia form?

-third month of fetal development

Ovaries release what hormones that control female development?

Estrogen & Progesterone

Three Phases (trimesters) of Prenatal Development:

-1) Germinal Phase (first two weeks) - zygote is a mass of multiplying cells traveling to uterus to embed

-2) Embryo Phase (2nd to 8th week) - embryo is approximately one inch; most vital organs/systems begin to form (major birth defects due to problems in this stage)

-3) Fetus Phase (8th week to birth) - muscles and bones form, vital organs grow, brain develops rapidly

Monozygotic Twins

-one fertilized ovum abnormally divides and creates two zygotes; these twins are identical

Dizygotic Twins

-two different ovum are fertilized at the same time; these twins are unidentical

Artificial Insemination

-sperm is injected directly into uterus

In-Vitro Fertilization

-sperm fertilizes egg outside of mother (test-tube), and then fertilized egg is implanted into uterus

Teratogens

-toxic agents that can cross the placental barrier to embryo and cause abnormalities

-ie. alcohol, nicotine, x-rays, environmental toxins

-time of exposure to teratogen plays a role (2nd trimester most dangerous)

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

-results from alcohol use during pregnancy

-Sx: short nose, thin upper lip, widely spaced eyes, small head, mental retardation

How stress can cause fetal damage:

Stress --> adrenaline --> passes placenta --> enters fetal bloodstream --> increased motor activity and HR (can stunt fetal growth)

Amniocentesis

-testing of fetal cells from amniotic fluid for genetic abnormalities

-cannot be done until 16th week of pregnancy

Chronic Villus Sampling (CVS)

-tiny hair cells from membrane that surrounds fetus are extracted and assessed for genetic abnormalities

-cannot be done until 6th week of pregnancy

Apgar Scale

-scale used to assess neonate health immediately after birth and 5-minutes after

Lamaze Method

-breathing techniques used to reduce pain during delivery

"Pruning"

-loss of unused/faulty neural circuits

Left Hemisphere of Brain Functions:

-motor movement R/side, language

Right Hemisphere of Brain Functions:

-motor movement L/side, spatial processing

Brain Lateralization

-the specialization of left and right hemispheres for different functions

Many reflexes that babies have disappear - they are?

-Moro - extension of arms at loss of support

-Babinski - spreading of toes when bottom of foot is stimulated

-Grasping - squeezing of object in hand

-Rooting - turning head while brushing cheek and sucking

Infants show fairly well-developed fine motor skills by...?

-9-12months

Average newborn length and weight?

20 inches, 7-7.5lbs

Myelination during childhood...

-makes impulses travel more quickly, and is believed to be the reason why reaction time gets quicker

Prefrontal cortex function?

Matures when?

-Higher order thinking, processing complex information

-Adolescence

Females reach full height by approximately?

Males by approximately?

-16yo

-20yo

Girls are thought to have reached puberty by...?

'Menarche' - first menstrual cycle; approximately 12.5yo

Boys are thought to have reached puberty by...?

First ejaculation; approximately 13yo

Obesity defined as weighing __% more than average...

20%

With aging there is... (physiological changes):

-Decreased GH - reduced bone & muscle mass, increased fat mass, thinning of skin, decreased CV function

-Decreased Thymus activity and increased stress hormones = lowered immune response

Female Climacteric

-AKA "menopause"

-spans ten years, begins early 50's, triggered by drop in estrogen

-Sx: plaque buildup in arteries, decreased bone density, mood fluctuations, hot flashes, night sweats

Perception

-assigning meaning to sensation

Habituation

-decreased attention to a familiar stimulus

Pathway of Vision?

Light enters pupil --> reflects of lens --> lands on receptor cells (rods & cones) of retina --> signal is sent to occipital lobe of cortex

Absolute Threshold

-minimum intensity of a stimulus a user can detect

-high absolute threshold for hearing & sight in newborns

Visual Acuity -

In infants?

Why?

-ability to see clearly

-poor; approximately 20/400 - 20/800

-muscles that control lens of eye are weak

Gibson & Walk's Visual Cliff Experiment

-tested depth perception in babies using visual cliffs with glass over them

-babies would not crawl off of cliff, meaning they have depth perception...

Perceptual Constancy

-tendency of objects to remain constant regardless of changes to distance, orientation, or lighting

Phonemes

-familiar sounds with subtle differences (t,p,d)

-by 6 months, newborns can discriminate phonemes that older children and adults no longer can

-^^maybe this shows language is innate? we are meant to learn it...

Four primary tastes?

Infants respond most to?

-sweet, sour, salty, bitter

-sweet liquids

What happens with vision in aging?

-Lens of eyes become less mobile (poorer sight)

-Cataracts - deposits on eye, can lead to blindness

-Glaucoma - excessive fluid in eye, can lead to blindness

-Poor near vision (presbyopia)

How does hearing work?

sound causes eardrums to vibrate --> fluid in ear moves and brushes hair cells = hearing

Presbycusis

-age related hearing loss

What happens with taste & smell in aging?

-difficulty discriminating bitter, salty, and acidic

-increased threshold for taste = things taste bland

-increased threshold for smell = can't spot smelly things

Cognition

-mental activities associated with acquiring, storage, retrieval, and use of knowledge

Concept

-a label that represents a group of objects, people, or events that share common characteristics

Inductive Reasoning

-reasoning from specific to general (drawing a conclusion about a group based off one individual)

Deductive Reasoning

-reasoning from general to specific (drawing a conclusion about an individual based off a group)

Information Processing Theory

-human mind is analogous to computer

-development is continuous

-memory involves registration, encoding, storage, and retrieval

-Sensory Memory - very brief (2-3seconds)

-Working Memory - approximately 20-30seconds, longer if rehearsal is used, 5-9 bits of information

-Long Term Memory - permanent; forgetting is simply lack of retrieval

-For Sensory --> Working, need attention

-For Working --> Long Term, need encoding

-Retrieval of memory can be recognition or recall

Elkind's Two Forms of Adolescent Egocentrism

-Imaginary Audience - belief that other people are focused on you

-Personal Fable - belief that your experience is unique; nobody is enduring what you are/have